REESE    LIBRARY    BIOLOGY 

LIBRARY 

•i>    THK  G 

UNIVERSITY   OF   CALIFORNIA 


Rtcthvd 
Accessions  No.  .f 


NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT, 


THE 


NATURALIST'S  ASSISTANT 


a  $?anfrl3ooft  for  tlje  ffioliector  antr  Stulrcnt 


WITH  A  BIBLIOGRAPHY  OF  FIFTEEN  HUNDRED  WORKS 

NECESSARY   FOR   THE   SYSTEMATIC 

ZOOLOGIST 


BY  J.   S.   KINGSLEY 


BOSTON 

S.    E.    CASSINO,    PUBLISHER 
1882 


Copyright, 
£T  S.  E.  CASSINO, 

1882. 


ELECTROTYPED. 

BOSTON  STEREOTYPE   FOUNDRY, 
No.  4  PEARL  STREET. 


UNIVERSITY 


CHAPTER  I. 


COLLECTING   AND    PRESERVING    SPECIMENS. 

MANY  treatises  and  papers  have  been  written  on  the  methods 
of  collecting  and  preserving  zoological  specimens  ;  the  more 
important  of  which  are  enumerated  below.  Space  prevents 
giving  the  various  operations  in  detail  in  this  volume,  but  it 
is  hoped  that  the  directions  given,  although  concise,  will 
prove  explicit  and  valuable.  For  more  extended  accounts  of 
the  methods  employed  in  collecting  and  preserving  specimens, 
the  student  is  referred  to  the  following  works : 

Boitard  —  Manuel  du  Naturaliste  PrSparateur.     Paris,  1853. 

T.  Brown  —  The  Taxidermist's  Manual.     London,  1859. 

Elliott  Coues  —  Field  Ornithology.     Salem,  1874. 

J.  B.  Davies  —  Naturalists'  Guide.     Edinburgh,  1853. 

G.  Dimmock  —  Directions  for  the  Collecting  of  Coleoptera.  Spring- 
field, Mass.,  1872. 

J.  H.  Emerton  —  Life  on  the  Seashore.     Salem,  1880. 

James  Lewis  —  Directions  for  Collecting  Land  and  Fresh  Water 
Shells  (American  Naturalist,  vol.  ii,  1868). 

C.  J.  Maynard  —  Naturalists'  Guide.     Salem,  1870. 

A.  S.  Packard,  jr.  —  Directions  for  Collecting  and  Preserving  In- 
sects (Smithsonian  Institution). 

Smithsonian  Directions  for  Collectors. 

W.  Swainson  —  Taxidermy.     London,  1851. 

1  (1) 


2  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

C.  A.  Walker  —  Hints  on  Taxidermy  (American  Naturalist,  vol.  iii, 
1870). 

Lord  Walsingham  —  Directions  for  Collecting  Micro-Lepidoptera 
(American  Naturalist,  vol.  vi,  1872). 

S.  P.  Woodward  —  Manual  of  the  Mollusca.     London,  1871. 

VERTEBRATES. 

Mammals  and  birds  are  most  readily  procured  by  shooting 
with  a  gun,  using  shot  large  enough  to  kill,  but  not  so  large 
as  seriously  to  injure  the  specimen.  The  size  of  the  shot  to 
be  employed  cannot,  of  course,  be  dogmatically  prescribed, 
as  it  varies  with  the  size  of  the  animal,  but  in  general  terms 
"  number  8  "  shot  will  be  large  enough  for  all  birds  under 
the  size  of  a  pigeon,  while  for  birds  of  greater  bulk,  "  number 
5  ",  or  larger,  will  be  required.  These  remarks  apply  equally 
well  to  the  smaller  mammals  ;  for  the  larger  ones  a  rifle  may 
be  necessary.  It  must  be  insisted  on  that  the  collector  shoot 
at  any  part  of  the  body  rather  than  at  the  head.  Some  col- 
lectors use  a  bow  and  arrow  or  a  blow  gun  for  the  smaller 
birds,  and  with  slight  practice  become  very  expert.  Traps 
and  snares  of  various  sorts  are  frequently  employed  and  with 
the  advantage  of  obtaining  the  specimen  in  an  uninjured 
condition.  "  Bird-lime  "  is  also  used  to  capture  birds  alive. 

The  English  method  of  making  this  substance  is  as  fol- 
lows :  the  middle  bark  of  the  holly,  mistletoe  or  distaff-thistle, 
is  chopped  up  and  boiled  in  water  several  hours.  The  result- 
ing liquid  is  then  strained  and  concentrated  by  evaporation 
until  it  assumes  a  gelatinous  consistency,  resembling  moist 
putty.  Doubtless  the  bark  of  several  of  our  American  trees 


VERTEBRATES.  3 

and  shrubs  would  answer  the  same  purpose,  but  the  writer  is 
not  aware  of  any  experiments  having  been  tried.  A  substitute 
may  be  made  by  taking  ordinary  wheat  flour,  placing  it  in  a 
bag  of  fine  muslin  and  washing  it  in  running  water,  aiding  the 
process  by  squeezing  until  all  the  starch  is  washed  out,  and 
only  the  gluten  remains  behind.  This  gluten  is  an  adhesive 
substance,  which  is  said  to  answer  the  purpose  well. 

A  third  formula  for  bird-lime  is  to  take  linseed  oil  and 
heat  it  over  a  slow  fire  (carefully  watching  it  to  see  that  it 
does  not  burn),  until  it  is  very  thick,  then  pour  it  into  cold 
water.  If  it  should  prove  too  thick,  the  addition  of  a  little 
pine  tar  will  readily  thin  it  for  use. 

The  bird-lime  should  be  smeared  on  the  branches  of  trees, 
etc.,  where  birds  most  do  congregate,  and  by  adhering  to 
their  feet,  it  holds  them  fast,  and  renders  them  an  easy  prey 
to  the  collector. 

No  matter  how  procured,  all  mammals  and  birds  intended 
for  stuffing  should  have  the  mouth,  nostrils,  anus  and  all 
wounds,  stopped  immediately  with  cotton  wool  to  prevent 
any  soiling  of  the  fur  or  feathers.  It  is  also  well  to  place  each 
bird  head  first  in  a  cone  made  of  cartridge  paper,  before 
placing  in  the  game  bag,  as  this  will  prevent  disarrangement 
of  the  feathers. 

All  Vertebrates  are  really  more  valuable  as  alcoholic  speci- 
mens, than  they  are  when  mounted  after  the  usual  manner  of 
taxidermists,  as  the  naturalist  is  then  able  at  any  time  to 
pursue  any  desired  investigation  of  their  anatomy,  a  course 
from  which  he  is  utterly  debarred  with  stuffed  specimens. 
Before  being  placed  in  spirit,  the  abdominal  walls  of  all  Ver- 


4  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

tebrates  should  be  cut  open,  care  being  taken  not  to  injure 
the  viscera.  This  allows  the  alcohol  to  readily  penetrate  the 
interior.  It  is  also  well  to  remove  a  portion  of  the  skull,  so 
that  the  preservative  fluid  can  have  access  to  the  brain.  Al- 
coholic specimens  of  foreign  vertebrates  thus  prepared  are 
a  great  desideratum  in  all  museums,  and  especially  in  those 
where  it  is  realized  that  science  is  more  than  skin  deep,  and 
consists  of  more  than  a  lot  of  scientific  names. 

The  art  of  skinning  mammals  and  birds  may  be  more 
readily  learned  by  seeing  another  perform  the  operation  than 
from  pages  of  description.  For  those  who  do  not  have  an 
opportunity  of  learning  the  methods  employed  by  observation, 
the  following  directions  which  are  modified  from  those  given 
in  Davies'  "  Naturalist's  Guide  "  (by  the  way  a  very  valuable 
little  work)  may  prove  of  use. 

MAMMALS. 

The  cotton  wool  is  first  removed  from  the  nostrils,  mouth, 
anus  and  wounds  and  replaced  by  fresh  plugs.  The  animal 
is  then  laid  on  its  back,  its  legs  pressed  out  and  the  fur 
parted  on  the  median  line  of  the  ventral  surface.  An  incision 
is  then  made  through  the  skin,  at  the  posterior  portion  of  the 
abdomen,  care  being  taken  to  cut  the  skin  only  and  not  the 
underlying  muscles,  this  incision  to  be  continued  forward  to 
near  the  neck.  With  the  left  hand  the  skin  is  then  raised 
first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other,  and  at  the  same  time 
separated  from  the  adjacent  muscles  with  the  handle  of  the 
scalpel,  an  ivory  paper  knife  or  other  blunt  instrument  held  in 


MAMMALS.  5 

the  right  hand.  The  portion  of  the  skin  thus  disengaged  is 
kept  from  adhering  to  the  flesh  of  the  body,  by  being  sprinkled 
with  plaster  of  Paris.  The  anus  is  then  cut  through,  and  im- 
mediately after,  the  tail  at  its  junction  with  the  body.  The  hind 
legs  are  then  cut  off  at  the  upper  thigh  joint,  and  the  posterior 
part  of  the  body  turned  out  of  the  skin.  The  carcase  is  now 
suspended  by  the  pelvis  on  a  hook  supported  by  a  string 
from  the  ceiling  of  the  room,  and  the  skin  gently  pulled  down 
from  the  back,  the  operation  being  facilitated  by  the  handle 
of  the  scalpel  as  before.  The  fore  legs  are  then  disarticu- 
lated at  the  shoulder  joint.  The  neck  is  then  uncovered  and 
the  head  proceeded  with.  In  skinning  the  latter  part,  great 
care  must  be  exercised  to  cut  off  the  ears  as  close  to  the 
skull  as  possible,  and  to  preserve  the  eyelids,  nostrils  and  lips 
uninjured.  The  neck  is  now  separated  from  the  skull.  The 
trunk  is  now  removed  from  the  hook  and  laid  aside,  and  the 
legs  successively  hung  on  the  hook,  and  the  skin  drawn  down 
as  far  as  the  toes.  The  flesh  is  then  removed  from  the  bones 
of  the  legs,  care  being  taken  to  leave  the  tendons  uniting  the 
joints  entire.  In  order  to  skin  the  tail,  the  first  two  or  three 
vertebrae  are  laid  bare  and  attached  to  a  stout  cord.  A 
cleft  stick  is  then  made  to  embrace  this  portion  already 
skinned  beyond  the  cord  and  gradually  forced  down  toward 
the  extremity,  carrying  with  it  the  freed  skin. 

The  skin  now  being  separated  is  carefully  examined  and 
any  flesh  or  fat  removed  by  the  scalpel.  The  inside  of  the 
skin  is  then  thoroughly  rubbed  over  with  the  common  white 
arsenic  of  the  shops  (arsenious  acid)  or  if  preferred  com- 
pletely anointed  with  arsenical  soap.  The  bones  of  the  legs 


6  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

are  to  be  treated  in  the  same  manner,  and,  having  been 
wrapped  with  tow,  are  returned  to  their  places.  The  skull  is 
next  pulled  out  through  the  neck  and  freed  from  fat  and  flesh 
and  the  brain  removed  through  the  opening  behind.  In 
some  cases  it  may  be  necessary  to  enlarge  this  opening  by 
breaking  away  the  adjacent  bone,  but  this  course  should  be 
avoided  as  much  as  possible,  as  the  skull,  from  a  scientific 
standpoint,  is  ot  as  much  value  as  the  skin,  and  should 
the  latter  by  any  means  become  destroyed  (by  no  means  an 
uncommon  occurrence),  the  specimen  will  still  retain  a 
scientific  value.  It  is  well,  when  possible,  to  remove  the 
skull  entirely  from  the  skin  and  macerate  it  in  water  until 
the  flesh  is  removed,  and  the  brain  so  decomposed  as  to  be 
readily  shaken  out  of  the  opening.  It  is  sometimes  desirable 
to  preserve  the  skull  and  the  skin  separately,  and  at  such  times 
a  rough  model  of  the  skull  may  be  made  of  plaster  of  Paris, 
and  placed  in  the  skin,  while  such  disposition  is  made  of  the 
skull  as  may  be  desired.  Should  the  skull  be  returned  to  the 
head,  the  place  of  all  flesh  removed  should  be  filled  by 
tow.  A  wire  wrapped  with  tow  may  be  inserted  in  the  tail, 
while  the  body  is  distended  to  something  like  its  original 
shape  by  the  same  material. 

BIRDS. 

A  paper  ring  is  made  fitting  tightly  around  the  body ;  this 
is  preserved  as  a  measure  of  the  proper  size  and  is  used 
farther  on.  This  ring  is  then  removed,  the  bird  laid  on  its 
back,  with  the  head  pointing  obliquely  from  the  operator  to- 


BIRDS.  7 

ward  his  left  hand.  The  feathers  are  then  separated  in  the 
median  line  by  the  left  hand,  and  an  incision  is  made  much 
as  in  mammals,  the  extent  of  this  slit  varying  somewhat 
with  the  expertness  of  the  operator,  as  well  as  the  kind  of 
bird  being  skinned.  The  slit  being  made,  the  ringers  are  in- 
serted between  the  skin  and  the  flesh,  and  the  parts  exposed 
dusted  with  plaster  of  Paris,  to  prevent  any  adhesion  of  the 
feathers.  In  some  cases,  it  is  advantageous  to  sew  strips  of 
cloth  to  the  cut  edges  of  the  skin  to  keep  the  feathers  clean, 
and  also  to  prevent  the  skin  from  stretching.  The  legs  are 
now  pushed  forward,  and  divided  at  the  knee  joints,  after 
which  the  vertebral  column  is  divided,  leaving  the  last  joint 
in  the  skin,  as  a  support  to  the  tail  feathers.  The  body  is 
then  suspended  from  the  hook  by  the  rump  end,  and  the  skin 
separated  from  the  back  and  sides  (as  in  the  case  of  mam- 
mals) until  the  shoulder  joints  appear.  If  the  bird  in  hand 
be  a  water-fowl,  it  may  be  necessary  to  separate  the  wings  at 
the  shoulder  joint,  but  whenever  possible  the  division  had 
best  be  made  at  the  elbow.  The  neck  is  next  to  be  skinned, 
taking  great  care  not  to  stretch  the  skin,  especially  in  the  case 
of  the  long-necked  birds.  Then  the  head  is  separated  from 
the  integument  as  far  as  the  bill.  Now  remove  the  tongue 
and  muscles  from  the  skull,  and  separate  it  from  the  neck, 
placing  the  carcase  aside,  and  remove  the  brain  from  the 
skull  with  a  quill,  enlarging  the  opening  if  necessary  for  the 
purpose.  Great  care  should  be  taken,  in  skinning  the  head, 
not  to  injure  the  external  ear  and  the  parts  around  the  eyes. 
The  bones  left  in  the  legs  (tibia)  are  now  to  be  skinned, 
cleaned,  thoroughly  covered  with  preservative  (arsenic  or 


8  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

arsenical  soap),  and  wrapped  with  tow.  After  treating  the 
skin  of  the  leg  with  arsenic,  the  bones  are  to  be  returned  to 
their  places  by  being  gently  pushed  in.  When  the  upper 
bone  of  the  wing  (hutoerus)  is  retained,  it  must  be  treated 
in  the  same  manner.  Except  in  the  case  of  large  birds,  no 
treatment  is  necessary  for  the  bones  of  the  fore  wing.  In 
these,  however,  the  muscles  may  be  removed  by  making  an 
incision  on  the  inside  of  the  wing,  and  then  impregnating 
with  arsenic,  and  fastening  with  two  or  three  stitches.  Now 
remove  all  flesh  and  fat  from  the  skull  and  skin,  and  impreg- 
nate them  thoroughly  (the  skull  inside  as  well  as  out)  with 
arsenic.  A  wire  about  the  length  of  the  neck  is  then  taken, 
and  one  end  being  fastened  in  the  base  of  the  skull,  a  little 
tow  or  flax  filled  with  arsenic  is  wrapped  around  it,  and  the 
head  is  pulled  out  of  the  neck  by  means  of  a  string  attached 
to  the  bill,  bringing  with  it  the  tow-covered  wire.  Next  dis- 
pose the  wings  in  their  proper  position,  place  the  paper  ring, 
mentioned  above,  around  the  body,  stuff  the  skin  out  to  its 
proper  dimensions  with  tow,  sew  up  the  slit,  label  and  dry, 
and  the  specimen  is  ready  for  the  cabinet. 

The  foregoing  directions  are  applicable  to  the  majority  of 
birds  but  will  have  to  be  modified  occasionally.  The  feet 
of  the  larger  birds  of  prey  are  frequently  fleshy.  In  these 
cases  it  will  be  necessary  to  cut  a  slit  on  the  under  side  of 
each  toe  and  perhaps  up  to  the  back  of  the  tarsus  to  remove 
the  muscles  and  tendons ;  then  rub  in  the  preservative,  fill 
with  tow  and  close  the  openings  with  a  few  stitches.  The 
webs  on  the  feet  of  swimming  birds  had  best  be  skinned  be- 
low and  in  all  cases  should  be  thoroughly  poisoned. 


BIRDS.  9 

When  the  head  is  of  such  a  size  that  the  skin  of  the  neck 
cannot  be  drawn  over  it,  as  is  the  case  with  the  flamingo 
and  most  web- footed  birds,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  an 
incision  in  the  neck  near  the  base  of  the  skull  and  through  it 
remove  the  brain,  etc.  This  is  an  operation  of  considerable 
nicety  as  the  feathers  are  very  liable  to  get  daubed.  In  case, 
however,  any  blood,  brain  or  feculent  matter  should  get  on  the 
feathers,  it  should  be  carefully  removed  by  a  cloth  dampened 'in 
warm  water.  Grebes,  and  other  water  fowl  with  white  silky 
bellies  are  sometimes  skinned  from  an  incision  in  the  back. 
In  this  way  the  feathers  are  less  liable  to  be  daubed  and  to  be 
stained  by  the  oil  of  the  body  when  in  the  cabinet. 

Humming  birds  from  their  diminutive  size  are  not  easily 
skinned.  They  may,  however,  be  preserved  by  making  an  in- 
cision on  the  belly  and  removing  as  much  of  the  soft  parts  as 
possible  with  the  forceps  and  scissors.  The  skin  should  then 
be  thoroughly  poisoned  and  filled  with  cotton  wool  or  tow. 

On  the  label  attached  to  each  bird  should  be  information 
as  to  the  following  points  : 

Exact  locality,  date  of  capture,  sex,  food  (ascertained  by 
an  examination  of  crop  and  gizzard)  color  of  the  eyes,  feet, 
bill,  gums,  membranes,  caruncles,  etc.  Attitude  of  body  when 
at  rest.  Does  the  bird  perch  or  not  ?  The  length  in  inches 
from  the  tip  of  bill  to  the  end  of  tail,  the  distance  between 
the  extremities  of  the  outstretched  wings  and  the  length  of 
the  wing  from  the  carpal  joint. 

Should  it  be  desired  to  mount  the  specimen,  information 
on  the  following  points  will  aid  the  taxidermist  in  giving  the 
proper  position. 


10 


NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 


Position  of  the  wings  whether  supported  or  hanging,  cross- 
ing on  the  tail  or  not.  Are  they  continuous,  or  covered  by 
the  feathers  of  the  back  and  breast,  for  the  upper  half  or 
third  or  two-thirds  of  their  length?  Do  their  extremities 
reach  the  tip  of  the  tail,  the  half  or  fourth  of  its  length? 
Are  the  heels  covered  by  the  feathers  of  the  belly  ? 

The  skins  of  mammals  and  birds  prepared  according  to 
the  foregoing  directions  are  really  more  valuable  for  the  nat- 
uralist than  the  mounted  specimens.  They  may  be  kept 

systematically  arranged  in 
boxes  or  drawers.  Mount- 
ing mammals  and  birds  is 
the  work  of  a  taxidermist 
and  directions  for  the  op- 
erations are  foreign  to  the 
purposes  of  this  work.  If 
it  be  desired  to  prepare  the 


specimens  for  exhibition 
they  had  better  be  sent  to 
the  professional  taxidermist,  as  amateur  work  generally  pres- 
ents a  very  slovenly  appearance.  One  thing,  however,  should 
always  be  insisted  on ;  the  stands  employed  should  be  of  the 
simplest  character.  For  birds  the  form  of  stand  shown  in 
the  adjacent  figure  is  preferable.  These  stands  are  usually 
painted  white.  For  mammals  and  many  aquatic  birds  a 
board  is  all  that  is  necessary.  By  all  means  avoid  the  use 
of  mosc,  mica  sand,  artificial  leaves,  etc.,  as  they  not  only 
afford  excellent  lurking  places  for  vermin,  but  also  detract 
greatly  from  a  scientific  appearance  of  the  collection ;  they 
and  not  the  specimens  attract  the  eye. 


FIG. 


COLLECTING  NESTS  AND   EGGS.  II 


NESTS   AND    EGGS. 

The  nests  and  eggs  of  birds  are  largely  collected,  espec- 
ially by  the  young,  and  many  a  naturalist  of  note  traces  his 
interest  in  zoology  to  h'.s  early  cabinet  of  eggs.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  tell  where  to  look  for  nests  as  every  one  with  his 
eyes  open  can  find  them.  Some  are  in  tall  trees,  some  birds 
build  in  bushes,  some  on  the  ground,  while  others  affect  the 
habitation  of  man. 

When  a  nest  is  found,  great  care  should  be  taken  to  iden- 
tify the  bird  to  which  it  belongs,  otherwise  both  nest 
and  eggs  are  scientifically  useless.  In  some  cases 
and  especially  with  collectors  in  foreign  countries, 
it  will  be  necessary  to  shoot  the  parent  birds  to  ac- 
complish this.  All  of  the  eggs  should  be  taken  and 
labelled  at  once  so  as  to  be  beyond  a  doubt  at  any 

FIG.  2. 

time.  The  contents  should  also  be  extracted.  This 
is  effected  by  boring  a  hole  in  one  side  of  the  egg  with  an  "egg 
drill"  (a  steel  instrument  which  can  be  procured  of  any  dealer 
in  naturalists'  supplies),  fig.  2,  and  through  this  opening  all 
contents  may  be  withdrawn.  For  this  purpose  some  use  a 
fine  nozzled  syringe,  while  others  insert  the  tip  of  a  jeweller's 
blow-pipe  into  the  opening,  and  then  by  blowing  in  the  egg 
the  yolk  is  forced  out  around  the  sides  of  the  pipe.  If  incu- 
bation has  proceeded  to  any  length  it  will  be  necessary  to  cut 
the  embryo  up  with  fine  pointed  scissors  and  extract  it  in 
fragments  with  the  aid  of  a  bent  needle.  The  interior  should 
then  be  thoroughly  rinsed,  first  with  water  and  then  with 


12  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

arsenical  soap.  The  opening  can  then  be  covered  with  a  bit 
of  goldbeater's  skin. 

Exact  labels  giving  the  name  of  the  bird  laying  the  eggs, 
the  locality  and  date,  the  number  of  eggs  in  the  nest,  etc., 
should  be  kept  with  each  specimen  and  numbered  to  corre- 
spond with  a  number  placed  on  the  egg. 

Eggs  of  our  native  birds  taken  at  various  stages  of  incu- 
bation, the  shell  cracked  and  then  the  whole  placed  in  40 
per  cent,  alcohol  and  in  a  few  hours  transferred  to  fresh  and 
slightly  stronger  spirit,  and  then  after  a  day  or  two  to  alcohol 
of  70  to  80  per  cent.,  would  'be  very  desirable  in  every 
museum  of  the  world.  Of  course,  with  each  egg  should  be 
preserved  not  only  the  name  of  the  species,  but  also  the 
number  of  hours  since  incubation  began.  Thus  the  student 
will  be  able  to  trace  more  or  less  completely,  according  to 
the  amount  of  material  at  command,  the  development  of  the 
various  forms  of  which,  at  present,  comparatively  little  is 
known.  The  same  process  may  be  advantageously  followed 
with  the  eggs  of  other  animals,  and  in  dissecting  mammals 
all  embryos  should  be  carefully  preserved. 

REPTILES   AND    BATRACHIA. 

The  collection  of  snakes,  turtles,  lizards,  frogs,  toads, 
and  salamanders  is  not  accompanied  with  any  special  difficulty 
though  proper  precautions  should  be  taken  against  venomous 
serpents.  Various  species  of  each  group  affect  certain  lo- 
calities, some  living  on  land  and  others  in  the  water.  Some 
live  in  the  open  fields,  others  in  thick  woods,  while  still  others 


FISHES.  13 

are  generally  found  in  damp  places  under  decaying  timber, 
etc. 

All  of  the  lower  vertebrates  are  best  preserved  as  "wet 
specimens,"  and  in  fact  with  the  exception  of  the  turtles  and 
a  few  large  forms  are  spoiled  by  being  skinned  and  stuffed. 
In  skinning  turtles  the  lower  shell  (plastron)  should  first  be 
removed  with  a  chisel  or  saw ;  the  succeeding  steps  are  essen- 
tially the  same  as  pursued  with  mammals.  Alligators  and 
large  lizards  are  skinned  the  same  as  mammals.  When  it 
is  desired  to  put  any  of  the  lower  vertebrates  in  alcohol,  an 
incision  should  be  made  in  the  abdominal  walls,  so  that  the 
spirit  may  more  readily  penetrate  the  viscera.  This  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  if  it  be  desired  at  any  future  time  to  investi- 
gate any  more  of  the  anatomy  than  the  osteology. 

FISHES. 

Besides  the  familiar  hook  and  line,  fishes  may  be  obtained 
by  seines,  trawls,  etc.,  to  be  described  further  on  under  the 
head,  "Marine  Collecting."  A  good  way  of  obtaining  many 
forms  is  to  visit  the  fish  markets ;  and  also  if  possible  hire 
the  fishermen  themselves  to  bring  in  specimens  of  all  sorts 
that  come  up  in  their  nets  or  on  their  lines.  In  this  way 
many  varieties  may  be  obtained  which  never  appear  in  the 
markets,  as  fishermen  are  accustomed  to  throw  back  all  fish 
which  according  to  their  ideas  are  not  edible. 

Fishes  are  almost  universally  preserved  in  alcohol,  though 
some  of  the  largest  ones  are  occasionally  stuffed.  At  such 
times  a  professional  taxidermist  had  best  be  employed. 


14  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

In  putting  in  alcohol  the  abdominal  walls  should  be  opened 
so  that  the  spirit  may  the  more  readily  enter  and  thus  ensure 
the  preservation  of  the  viscera,  some  parts  of  which  are  very 
important  even  from  a  systematic  standpoint. 

Fishes  in  alcohol  do  not  present  a  very  interesting  or 
attractive  appearance  on  the  shelves  of  a  museum,  and  only 
the  ichthyologist  is  able  to  decide  on  the  identity  of  alcoholic 
and  fresh  specimens.  Many  attempts  have  been  made  to 
preserve  fish  dry  but  the  majority  of  methods  employed  do 
not  produce  very  satisfactory  results.  The  best  process 
known  to  the  writer  is  that  invented  by  Dr.  H.  E.  Davidson, 
who  has  not  only  described  his  method  but  has  also  given 
chances  to  witness  the  operation  which  is  as  follows  : 

The  necessary  materials  are  thin  pieces  of  soft  wood  about 
one- eighth  of  an  inch  in  thickness  ;  square  sticks  measuring 
from  three-fourths  of  an  inch  upwards ;  plaster  of  paris 
glycerine,  tissue  paper,  pins,  and  double  pointed  carpet  tacks- 

The  outline  of  the  fish  without  the  fins  is  marked  on 
two  pieces  of  board  which  are  held  together  by  pieces  of  the 
square  sticks  tacked  across  the  ends,  and  then  the  portion 
corresponding  to  the  body  is  cut  away  so  that  we  have  two 
strips  of  wood  one  following  the  dorsal  and  the  other  the 
ventral  contour  of  the  fish.  The  fish  is  then  placed  in  this 
opening  and  the  various  fins  are  extended  and  fixed  in 
position  with  pins,  the  board  in  the  meantime  being  supported 
so  that  one  side  of  the  fish  can  freely  extend  through  the 
opening  in  the  joined  boards.  Strips  of  tissue  paper  wet 
with  glycerine  are  then  laid  smoothly  over  the  fish  and  next 
a  coating  of  plaster  is  poured  over  the  same  side.  When 


FISHES,  15 

the  plaster  is  hardened,  the  boards,  etc.,  are  reversed  and  the 
rest  of  the  work  is  carried  on  from  the  opposite  side  of  the 
body.  All  that  portion  of  the  fish  which  projects  through 
the  opening  is  first  cut  away,  and  then  all  of  the  muscles, 
bones  and  viscera,  are  carefully  removed  until  nothing  re- 
mains but  the  skin  supporting  the  fins  and  its  plaster  backing. 
In  this  condition  one  side  of  the  skin  is  entire  and  on  the 
other  side  a  narrow  strip  of  skin  extends  around  the  median 
line  of  the  body  from  a  quarter  to  half  of  an  inch  in  width. 
The  interior  of  the  skin  is  now  dusted  with  arsenic.  The  eye 
is  then  placed  in  position  and  the  skin  is  filled  with  plaster 
mixed  to  about  the  consistency  of  cream.  The  double  pointed 
carpet  tacks  are  then  taken,  and  their  points, 
having  been  bent  as  shown  in  the  adjacent 
figure,  are  hooked  into  the  strip  of  skin  and 
the  loop  embedded  in  the  plaster.  A  small 

FIG    3 

strip  of  wood  (previously  coated  with  shellac 
to  prevent  undue  expansion  from  the  moisture),  is  also  em- 
bedded in  the  plaster,  its  upper  surface  being  even  with  that 
of  the  plaster.  The  two  halves  of  the  board  are  separated 
when  the  plaster  becomes  dry,  the  skin  with  its  plaster  interior 
is  removed  from  its  mould  and  washed  and  the  fins  placed  in 
clips  so  that  they  may  dry  flat.  When  thoroughly  dry,  the 
specimen  is  mounted  on  a  wooden  tablet  by  screws  passing 
into  the  embedded  block  and  the  whole  is  ready  for  exhibi- 
tion. 

No  means  have  yet  been  found  of  preserving  the '  natural 
colors  of  the  fish ;  and  the  only  way  of  representing  them  on 
the  specimens  thus  mounted  is  by  means  of  paints. 


1 6  NATURALISTS'   ASSISTANT. 

This  process  which  has  been  thus  briefly  described,  is  the 
property  of  Dr.  H.  E.  Davidson  of  Boston,  and  to  him  all 
inquiries,  as  to  the  rights  to  use  it,  should  be  addressed. 

SKELETONS. 

Of  fully  as  much  importance  as  skins,  and  scarcely  more 
difficult  to  prepare,  are  skeletons  of  vertebrates,  and  when 
from  any  circumstance  it  is  impossible  to  prepare  the  whole 
skeleton,  the  skull  can  frequently  be  preserved.  The  modus 
operandi  is  essentially  the  same  for  all  vertebrates. 

Skeletons  are  of  two  sorts,  natural  and  artificial :  *.  <?.,  those 
where  the  bones  are  united  by  the  ligaments,  and  those  in 
which  the  ligaments  are  removed  as  well  as  the  flesh,  and  the 
bones  are  articulated  with  wires  and  rods.  Natural  skeletons 
can  only  be  prepared  when  the  subject  is  of  small  size  ;  not 
exceeding  the  fox  or  goose  in  bulk.  Skeletons  of  larger  ani- 
mals must  be,  to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  artificially  articulated. 

The  skin  is  first  removed  from  all  parts  of  the  body,  the 
head  separated  and  the  viscera  extracted.  Then  as  much  of 
the  flesh  as  possible  is  removed  with  the  scalpel,  great  care 
being  taken  not  to  cut,  scratch  or  otherwise  injure  the  bones. 
The  body  is  then  placed  in  cold  water  to  macerate,  some- 
times a  little  caustic  potash  is  added  to  the  water  to  ac- 
celerate the  decomposition  of  the  flesh,  but  except  a  gain 
in  time  there  are  no  advantages  to  be  gained  by  the  ad- 
dition. For  the  first  few  days  the  water  should  be  changed 
every  day,  and  when  the  flesh  is  partially  decomposed  as 
much  as  possible  is  to  be  removed,  taking  care,  if  the  skele- 


SKELETONS.  1 7 

ton  is  to  be  a  natural  one,  not  to  injure  the  ligaments. 
The  partially  cleaned  skeleton  is  then  returned  to  the  mac- 
erating tub,  and  on  succeeding  days  is  subjected  to  the 
cleansing  operation  until  all  the  flesh  is  removed.  It  may 
be  well,  as  a  final  step,  to  use  a  stiff  nail  brush  to  remove 
the  last  traces  of  flesh. 

The  skull  is  treated  in  the  same  manner,  and  the  brain 
is  broken  up  and  removed  with  a  stick,  through  the  occipital 
foramen.  It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  open  the  skull  by 
sawing  off  the  top,  and  thus  to  remove  the  brain  more  care- 
fully, preserving  the  tentorium  and  falx  cerebri  uninjured. 

Under  no  circumstances  should  the  bones  be  boiled  as 
that  operation  greases  them  and  gives  the  skeleton  an  un- 
sightly appearance.  If  the  water  is  left  too  long  without 
changing,  the  bones  are  apt  to  become  discolored. 

When  finally  cleansed,  the  skeleton  (if  a  natural  one)  has 
a  wire  passed  down  the  spinal  canal,  its  end  projecting  from 
the  neck  and  then,  being  supported  in  the  desired  position  by 
strings  or  wires  attached  to  a  suitable  framework,  is  left  to 
dry.  When  dry,  the  skull  is  fastened  to  its  place  on  the 
wire  projecting  from  the  neck,  by  means  of  copper  or  brass 
wire,  the  lower  jaw  is  articulated  to  the  skull,  and  held  in  a 
proper  position  by  spiral  springs.  The  body  is  then  sup- 
ported on  a  couple  of  upright  standards,  arising  from  a  hori- 
zontal base,  and  after  being  duly  and  fully  labelled,  the 
specimen  is  complete. 

It  would  be  impossible,  without  occupying  much  more 
space  than  is  allowed,  to  describe  the  method  of  articulating 
an  artificial  skeleton,  while  on  the  other  hand  it  can  be 
2 


1 8  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

readily  understood,  after  a  few  minutes'  study  of  one  thus 
prepared ;  and  therefore  all  who  wish  to  articulate  artificial 
skeletons  are  respectfully  requested  to  obtain  the  requisite 
knowledge  by  observation.  Great  care,  however,  should 
be  exercised  that  none  of  the  small  bones  be  lost  in  the 
process  of  maceration. 

COLLECTING  INSECTS. 

Insects  are  the  most  numerous  both  in  individuals  and  in 
species  of  any  group  of  the  animal  kingdom  and  may  be 

found  almost  everywhere 
and  at  every  season  of  the 
year.  Their  beauty,  their 
numbers,  and  the  ease 
with  which  they  may  be 
collected  and  preserved, 
render  them  great  favor- 
FlG- 4-  ites.  Many  a  naturalist, 

who  has  acquired  prominence,  traces  his  studies  to  the 
collections  of  insects  made  in  his  youth. 

The  insect  collector  needs  certain  pieces  of  apparatus 
none  of  them  expensive  and  all  easily  made  by  one  possess- 
ing an  ordinary  an.ount  of  mechanical  skill,  or  they  may  be 
readily  procured  in  the  shops.  Those  most  essential  are 
insect  nets,  means  of  killing,  and  conveniences  for  carrying 
the  specimens  home. 

An  insect  net,  fig.  4,  is  readily  made  by  taking  a  stout  brass 
wire  (iron  rusts  too  readily)  and  bending  it  into  a  ring  about 


COLLECTING   INSECTS.  19 

twelve  or  fifteen  inches  in  diameter.  The  ends  of  the  wire 
should  be  bent  out  and  soldered  into  a  ferrule  which  will  fit 
on  the  end  of  a  cane  or  other  handle.  The  net  proper 
should  be  about  twenty  inches  in  depth  and  made  of  gauze 
or  mosquito  netting.  It  should  not  be  attached  directly  to 
the  ring,  as  it  would  then  quickly  fray  out,  but  to  a  piece  of 
strong  cotton  cloth  which  in  turn  is  sewed  to  the  ring.  Other 
more  elaborate  forms  are  made  in  which  the  ring  will  fold  up 
for  convenience  in  carrying,  but  the  saving  hardly  repays  the 
additional  expense.  Those  interested  will  find  a  good  de- 
scription and  figure  in  Dr.  Packard's  "Directions  for  Collect- 
ing and  Preserving  Insects,  "  published  by  the  Smithsonian 
Institution,  page  4,  fig.  2, 
where  one  or  two  other 
forms  are  also  described. 

The  net  is  used  princi- 
pally for  collecting  the 

strong  flying  insects  (e.  g.,  Butterflies),  either  on  the  wing 
or  while  at  rest.  With  a  swoop  the  net  is  brought  over  the 
insect,  and  then,  by  a  dexterous  twist,  easily  acquired  but 
not  readily  described,  the  bag  is  thrown  over  the  ring  and 
the  specimen  is  securely  imprisoned.  The  insect  may  then 
either  be  pinned  while  in  the  net  or  transferred  to  the 
cyanide  bottle  to  be  described  farther  on.  Lepidoptera  may 
be  killed  while  in  the  net  by  giving  the  thorax  a  severe  pinch, 
of  course  taking  care  that  the  wings  are  not  injured. 

A  shallow  scoop  net,  fig.  5,  made  in  the  same  manner  as 
the  insect  net  above  described  is  useful  for  collecting  aquatic 


20  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

insects.     It  is  not  necessary  to  detail  the  method  of  using  it, 
as  any  one  will  readily  find  out  for  himself. 

For  collecting  stinging  insects  a  pair  of  forceps,  fig.  6,  made 
of  wire,  the  distal  extremities  of  which  are  bent  into  broad 
blades  covered  with  netting,  will  prove  very  convenient,  es- 
pecially as  there  is  no  danger  of  being  stung.  The  bee  or 
other  insects  are  caught  between  the  blades  while  resting  on  a 
flower,  and  while  a  prisoner  is  pinned ;  and  then,  the  blades 
being  opened,  the  pin  is  readily  drawn  from  the  meshes  of 
the  netting. 

An  umbrella  is  indispensable  in  collecting  certain  forms  of 

insects.  It  is  held  spread  open 
in  an  inverted  position  beneath 
the  branches  of  some  tree  or 
shrub,  then  the  foliage  is  beaten 
with  a  stick,  and  the  insects 
drop  and  are  caught.  This  is 

especially  valuable  for  collecting  certain  Coleoptera,  Spiders, 
Microlepidoptera,  Psocidae,  etc. 

For  killing  insects  the  most  convenient  plan  is  to  take  a 
wide-mouthed  bottle  and  place  in  the  bottom  a  piece  of  cya- 
nide of  potassium  (a  dangerous  poison) .  Then  some  plaster 
of  Paris  is  mixed  to  a  stiff  paste  with  water  and  poured 
over  the  cyanide.  The  plaster  soon  sets  and  holds  the 
chemical  firmly,  while  its  porosity  allows  the  fumes  of  prussic 
acid  to  pass  readily  into  the  vacant  portion  of  the  bottle. 
The  bottle  after  thus  being  prepared  should  be  allowed  to 
stand  open  for  a  day  to  allow  the  moisture  from  the  plaster 


COLLECTING  INSECTS.  21 

to  escape  ;  it  should  then  be  kept  securely  corked.  One  of 
these  cyanide  bottles  will  answer  for  a  season's  collecting  and 
is  safe  for  children  to  use.  An  older  person,  however,  should 
prepare  the  bottle,  as  the  cyanide  is  very  poisonous  and 
sometimes  produces  severe  ulcers  on  the  parts  of  the  body 
with  which  it  may  come  in  contact. 

Some  instead  of  cyanide  use  ether,  chloroform,  benzine, 
or  bisulphide  of  carbon  in  the  bottle,  but  the  rapidity  with 
which  these  evaporate  renders  them  far  less  convenient  than 
the  cyanide.  Dr.  Loew  recommends  moistening  the  bottom 
of  the  collecting  bottle  with  creosote  for  killing  Diptera. 
Lepidoptera  may  be  killed  by  giving  a  severe  pinch  to  the 
sides  of  the  thorax,  though  this  is  very  apt  to  remove  many 
of  the  "feathers"  from  the  body.  The  wings  of  a  butterfly 
should  never  be  touched  with  the  fingers  and  great  care 
should  be  taken  to  avoid  mutilation  of  any  insect. 

For  carrying  specimens  home  the  collector  should  be  pro- 
vided with  wide-mouthed  vials  and  bottles ;  some  empty 
and  some  containing  alcohol;  a  supply  of  "pill  boxes"  and 
a  cork-lined  box  two  inches  in  depth  and  in  its  other  dimen- 
sions as  large  as  can  be  conveniently  carried  in  the  pocket. 
Insect  pins  of  various  sizes  are  indispensable.  The  insects 
on  being  collected  may  be  carried  home  alive  by  placing 
them  in  the  pill  boxes  or  the  empty  vials ;  or  they  may  be 
killed  by  the  cyanide  bottle  or  being  placed  in  the  alcohol, 
or  by  pinching.  Beetles  and  bugs  may  be  kept  in  the  al- 
cohol, or  with  other  forms  pinned  in  the  field  and  kept  in 
the  cork-lined  box.  The  writer  has  found  a  stiff  round 
crowned  hat  a  very  convenient  substitute  for  the  cork-lined 


22  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

box,  as  the  insects  may  be  pinned  on  the  inside  and  thus  are 
not  seen  by  that  class  of  society  who  think  a  naturalist  a 
little  "cracked."  Lepidoptera  maybe  conveniently  carried 
by  folding  the  wings  together  and  placing  them  in  square 
sheets  of  paper  folded  into  a  triangular  form. 

It  is  impossible  to  say  exactly  where  insects  may  be  found. 
In  general  terms,  gardens,  the  edges  of  woods  and  banks  of 
ponds  and  streams  are  more  bountifully  supplied  than  tree- 
less meadows  or  deep  forests.  In  winter  the  moss  and'bark 
on  trees  cover  many  beetles,  spiders,  Tingids  and  hymenop- 
terous  insects,  as  well  as  pupae  of  these  and  other  orders. 
In  the  summer,  insects  are  far  more  numerous.  The  open 
fields  will  afford  numerous  Lepidoptera,  beds  of  flowers  will 
attract  all  orders,  certain  forms  affect  mushrooms  and  toad- 
stools, and  Silphida,  Nitidulidcz,  and  StaphylinidtR,  as  well 
as  various  flies,  may  be  found  in  the  vicinity  of  carrion.  Old 
boards  and  logs  afford  hiding  places  for  various  larvae  as  well 
as  spiders,  myriapods  and  beetles,  while  in  such  places  the 
Thysanura  thrive.  In  the  moist  loose  earth  at  the  edges  or 
woods  Campodea,  Trichopetalum,  Scolopendrella  and  the 
Pauropida  should  be  sought.  Other  species  of  insects, 
notably  certain  Scarabaida  and  dipterous  larvae,  live  in  ex- 
crementitious  matter.  Ponds  and  streams  contain  large 
numbers  of  insects ;  beetles,  bugs  and  the  larvae  of  several 
other  groups.  One  may  do  much  for  science  by  studying 
the  transformations  of  these  aquatic  forms.  Of  the  various 
stages  passed  through  by  our  species  of  dragon-flies,  caddis- 
flies,  may-flies,  etc.,  almost  nothing  is  known.  The  galls 
found  on  trees  and  plants  may  be  taken  home  and  the  larvae 


PINNING  INSECTS.  23 

contained  in  them  reared,  and  the  same  course  may  be  pur- 
sued with  all  the  larvae  and  pupae  found  while  collecting. 

PINNING    INSECTS. 

Insects  are  usually  mounted  for  the  cabinet  on  pins  made 
especially  for  the  purpose,  which  can  be  procured  of  any 
dealer  in  naturalists'  supplies.  Those  most  generally  em- 
ployed are  brass,  silver  plated.  A  good  quality  should  be 
used,  as  with  poor  pins  the  specimen  is  apt  to  be  covered 
with  verdigris  while  the  pin  itself  is  soon  destroyed.  To 
avoid  this,  varnished  pins,  and  silver  and  platinum  wire 
have  been  employed.  A  gold  plated  pin  has  been  recently 
introduced  with  very  satisfactory  results  while  the  increase 
in  price  is  slight.  The  best  silvered  pins  are  those  made 
in  Berlin  by  Klager.  There  are  five  sizes,  of  which  num- 
bers one,  three,  and  five  are  the  most  convenient,  number 
one  being  the  finest.  Still  smaller  pins  are  made  for  minute 
insects.  The  insect  is  impaled  with  one  of  these  smallest  pins 
and  fastened  to  a  bit  of  cork  which  in  turn  is  mounted  on 
a  larger  pin  and  the  whole  placed  in  the  collection.  Most 
insects  are  pinned  through  the  thorax,  but  beetles  should 
have  the  pin  inserted  through  the  right  wing  cover.  The 
specimens  should  all  be  pinned  at  an  equal  height,  so  that 
about  one-fourth  of  the  pin  extends  above  the  insect.  On 
the  pin  below  the  insect  should  be  kept  labels,  dates  and 
localities  of  capture,  and  all  information  of  value.  Very 
minute  insects  are  frequently  glued  to  bits  of  card  and 
these  are  in  turn  pinned.  It  is  most  convenient  to  cover  a 


24  NATURALISTS1   ASSISTANT. 

piece  of  card  with  gum,  place  the  insects  promiscuously 
upon  it  and  then  when  dry  cut  to  suit  the  specimen.  Thin 
pieces  of  mica  are  also  used  in  a  similar  manner. 

To  place  the  insects  in  the  cabinet,  what  are  known  as  pin- 
ning forceps  are  frequently  used.  These  are 
forceps  made  after  the  usual  manner,  except 
that  the  extremities  are  bent  as  shown  in  fig. 
7,  and  the  corrugations  of  the  points  are  so 
arranged  as  to  hold  the  pin  firmly.  The  pin 
is  grasped  by  them  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch  from  the  extremity  and  forced  into  the 
bottom  of  the  case  with  a  gentle  pressure. 
By  this  method  all  danger  of  bending  the 
pins  is  averted,  a  result  which  frequently  fol- 
lows an  attempt  to  set  them  with  the  fingers. 
They  may  also  be  set  with  much  greater  reg- 
ularity with  the  forceps  than  without. 

SPREADING   BUTTERFLIES. 

Butterflies  and  moths  should  always  have 
the  wings  extended  and  it  is  frequently  de- 
sirable to  mount  other  insects  in  the  same 

manner.     This  is  accomplished  by  means  of 
FIG.  7. 

a  "setting  board."      A  strip  of  pine  or  other 

soft  wood  has  a  groove  ploughed  through  the  middle  to 
the  depth  of  from  three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  an  inch. 
The  bottom  of  the  groove  is  generally  lined  with  cork  to 
hold  the  point  of  the  pin.  It  is  frequently  desirable  to  have 


SPREADING    BUTTERFLIES.  25 

the  surface  of  the  setting  board  slightly  bevelled  towards  the 
middle  groove,  as  in  this  way  a  drooping-  appearance  of  the 
wings  is  prevented.  See  fig.  8. 

The  pin  is  passed  through  the  thorax  of  the  insect  into  the 


cork  in  the  groove  and  then  the  body  lying  in  the  groove, 
the  wings  are  taken,  first  on  one  side  and  then  on  the  other, 
with  a  fine  pair  of  forceps  (never  with  the  fingers) ,  placed 


26  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

in  the  desired  position  and  held  either  by  a  slip  of  cardboard 
pinned  to  the  setting  board,  or  by  the  weight  of  a  piece  of 
glass  or  sheet  lead.  The  wings  of  the  two  sides  should  be 
brought  to  symmetrical  positions  and  the  antennae  and  legs 
disposed  as  desired  and  held  in  position  with  pins  if  neces- 
sary. The  board  and  its  contents  should  then  be  put  away 
to  dry,  an  operation  which  will  occupy  from  three  days  to  a 
week  or  more  according  to  the  temperature  and  moisture  of 
the  air. 

The  collector  in  the  field  will  find  it  convenient  to  pack 
butterflies  in  sheets  of  paper  folded  in  triangles  and  in  this 
shape  they  may  be  kept  as  long  as  desired,  of  course  all  due 
precautions  being  taken  to  prevent  the  ravages  of  injurious 
insects.  When  it  is  desired  to  spread  them  they  may  be  re- 
laxed, no  matter  how  long  a  time  has  elapsed  since  their  col- 
lection, by  placing  them  in  a  covered  box,  the  bottom  of 
which  is  covered  with  moist  sand,  the  insects  being  protect- 
ed from  soiling  by  the  intervention  of  a  sheet  of  paper. 
The  box  with  its  contents  is  then  placed  in  a  warm  place 
for  half  a  day  when  the  moisture  arising  from  the  sand  will 
have  so  relaxed  the  muscles  and  tendons  that  the  specimens 
may  be  spread  in  the  manner  above  described. 

Beetles,  bugs,  and  orthoptera  may  be  taken  from  the 
alcohol  and  pinned  at  any  time,  but  flies,  Hymenoptera, 
Neuroptera  and  Lepidoptera  never  present  a  good  appear- 
ance after  immersion  in  spirits,  though  Hymenoptera  and 
Neuroptera  stand  the  operation  better  than  the  others.  A 
protracted  stay  in  the  spirit  injures  the  colors  of  all  insects. 


INFLATING   LARVAE.  27 

Insects  frequently  become  broken  while  in  the  cabinet 
and  it  is  recommended  that  inspissated  ox  gall  made  into 
a  thick  gum  with  a  little  water  be  employed  in  mending 
them. 

It  is  occasionally  necessary  to  transport  collections  of  in- 
sects from  one  place  to  another  and  at  such  times  the  great- 
est care  should  be  taken  to  protect  them  from  injury.  The 
collector  in  distant  parts  can  send  all  but  the  Lepidoptera 
and  flies  in  spirit ;  the  former  may  be  sent  folded  in  envel- 
opes while  flies  can  only  be  pinned.  In  case  mounted 
specimens  are  to  be  sent  the  danger  of  damage  is  much 
greater.  Small  cork-lined  boxes  should  be  employed  and 
the  pins  should  be  very  firmly  fixed,  the  points  being  forced 
into  the  wood  of  the  box.  These  smaller  boxes  should 
then  be  placed  in  a  larger  one  and  surrounded  on  all  sides 
with  crumpled  paper,  hay,  "excelsior,"  or  other  elastic  pack- 
ing. By  this  process  all  jars  received  in  transit  are  much 
lessened. 

INFLATING   LARVAE. 

Besides  the  usual  manner  of  preserving  larvae  in  spirit  they 
are  sometimes  inflated  and  dried.  Several  advantages  accrue 
from  this  method  of  preservation ;  the  colors  are  better 
preserved,  all  hairs  and  spines  retain  their  proper  position 
and  the  specimens  are  always  in  good  condition  for  the 
artist's  pencil.  The  following  account  of  the  process  is  con- 
densed from  that  of  Mr.  Scudder  : 

The  necessary  instruments  for  the  operation  are  a  small 


28  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

tin  oven,  a  spirit  lamp,  a  pair  of  finely  pointed  scissors,  a  little 
fine  wire  and  a  straw. 

The  oven  is  a  tin  box  two  and  one-half  inches  high,  two  and 
one-half  wide  and  five  long,  the  cover  is  of  glass  and  one  end 
is  perforated  with  a  hole  one  and  one-half  inches  in  diameter. 
See  fig.  9.  No  solder  should  be  used  in  its  construction. 


FIG.  9. 

The  wire  should  be  very  fine  and  annealed.  It  should  not  be 
over  one-half  a  millimetre  (one-fiftieth  of  an  inch)  in  diameter. 
Kill  the  subject  by  a  drop  of  ether  or  by  immersion  in 
alcohol.  If  it  be  a  hairy  caterpillar  it  should  remain  at  least 
half  an  hour  in  alcohol  and  then  rest  two  hours  on  blotting 


MOUNTING   SPIDERS.  29 

paper,  otherwise  the  hairs  are  apt  to  drop  off.  Then,  holding 
the  larva  in  the  left  hand,  enlarge  the  vent  slightly  below  with 
a  vertical  cut  of  the  scissors,  and  next  press  the  extremity 
of  the  body  with  the  fingers  so  as  to  force  out  the  contents 
of  the  rectum  ;  repeat  the  operation  a  little  farther  forward, 
and  so  on,  a  slight  additional  portion  of  the  contents  of  the 
body  being  gently  pressed  out  each  time.  Great  care  should 
be  exercised  not  to  abrade  the  skin  or  get  the  exterior  soiled 
by  the  expelled  portions.  When  a  portion  of  the  intestine 
is  extended,  it  should  be  seized  with  the  forceps  and,  hold- 
ing the  head  in  the  left  hand,  the  tube  should  be  forcibly 
but  steadily  torn  from  its  attachments  bringing  with  it  most 
of  the  contents  of  the  body. 

The  lamp  is  now  lighted  and  placed  under  the  oven  ;  and 
a  straw  taken  of  a  proper  size  to  enter  the  enlarged  vent ; 
having  cut  off  one  end  diagonally  it  is  moistened  and 
carefully  inserted  into  the  opening  for  about  a  quarter  of  an 
inch,  and  then  pinned  through  the  straw  and  anal  plate  with 
a  delicate  insect  pin.  The  caterpillar  is  then  inflated  with  the 
breath,  taking  care  not  to  use  too  great  a  pressure,  and  then 
extended  horizontally  in  the  oven,  the  inflation  being  con- 
stantly continued.  The  posterior  end  should  be  dried  first 
(by  keeping  it  in  the  hottest  portion)  and  gradually  working 
forward,  lastly  the  head.  When  all  is  dry  the  skin  should 
be  removed  from  the  straw  by  careful  use  of  some  blunt  in- 
strument or  the  finger  nail. 

A  piece  of  wire  is  then  taken,  a  little  over  twice  the  length 
of  the  larva,  and  bent  into  the  form  shown  in  fig.  10,  the  free 
ends  being  slightly  incurved.  A  drop  of  shellac  dissolved 


30  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

in  alcohol  is  then  placed  on  the  loop  and  the  free  ends 
are  gently  inserted  into  the  body  until  the  hinder  extremity 
has  passed  half-way  over  the  loop  and  the  shellac  has  smeared 
the  inside  sufficiently  to  hold  the  specimen  when 
dry.  The  folded  end  is  then  firmly  wound  around 
an  insect  pin  and  the  whole,  after  labelling,  is  placed 
in  a  position  where  it  can  dry  a  couple  of  days  be- 
fore removal  to  the  collection. 


MOUNTING   SPIDERS. 

Spiders  are  usually  preserved  as  wet  preparations, 
as  when  dried  as  insects  usually  are,  the  abdomen 
shrinks  badly.  This,  however,  can  be  avoided  as 
follows : 

Kill  the  spider  by  exposure  to  some  poisonous 
vapor  or  gas  (ether,  chloroform  or  prussic  acid) 
and  then  cut  the  body  in  two  between  the  cepha- 
lothorax  and  abdomen.  An  insect  pin  is  then 
FlG* I0"  taken,  its  head  inserted  into  the  abdomen  and  its 
point  into  a  stick  of  wood,  and  then  the  abdomen  is  dried 
by  placing  in  the  oven  mentioned  above,  or  in  a  test  tube 
heated  over  a  spirit  lamp.  The  specimen  should  be  kept 
turning  so  as  to  dry  all  sides  evenly.  When  dry,  the  pin  is 
cut  off  a  short  distance  from  the  abdomen  and  the  anterior 
portion  of  the  spider  is  impaled  on  the  extending  part  of  the 
pin,  and  then  a  second  pin  being  passed  through  the  thorax 
(to  be  used  in  mounting  in  the  collection),  the  whole  is 
returned  to  the  oven  until  dry ;  it  is  then  labelled  and  placed 
in  the  cabinet. 


BREEDING   LARVAE. 


BREEDING    LARVAE. 


The  finest  specimens  of  Lepidoptera  are  obtained  by 
rearing  from  the  larval  or  pupal  stages.  This  is  accomplished 
by  the  use  of  breeding  cages.  For  this  purpose  glass  tum- 
blers covered  with  gauze  may  be  employed,  but  a  better  thing 


FIG.   ii. 

is  a  box  especially  prepared  for  the  purpose.  Take  a  wooden 
box  without  a  cover,  lay  it  on  its  side  and  tack  a  lath  across 
the  lower  edge  so  that  a  shallow  tray  is  made ;  then  cover 
the  rest  of  the  opening  with  gauze  or  mosquito  netting- 
Then  put  a  small  door  in  the  side,  which,  by  the  inversion  of 
the  box,  becomes  the  top.  The  box  should  then  have  a  layer 
of  moist  earth  reaching  to  the  top  of  the  lath.  It  is  fre- 
quently well  to  subdivide  the  box  as  larvae  are  occasionally 
apt  to  desert  a  vegetable  diet  and  eat  their  companions. 


32  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

Having  prepared  the  box  the  larvae  should  be  collected  and 
placed  in  it.  With  each  larva  should  he  collected  portions 
of  the  plant  on  which  it  feeds  and  these  should  be  placed  in 
the  box,  inserting  the  ends  of  the  twigs  in  the  earth.  When 
they  show  signs  of  wilting  new  leaves  should  be  collected 
and  the  old  ones  removed. 

Drawings  should  be  made  of  each  species  of  larvae  at  its 
various  stages,  and  in  the  notes  which  every  naturalist  should 
keep,  should  be  noted  the  food  plant  of  the  larva,  the  dates 
of  pupation  and  of  the  emergence  of  the  imago,  and  every 
other  item  which  will  serve  to  elucidate  the  life  history  ot 
the  insect.  Frequently  it  is  well,  when  a  female  insect  has 
been  obtained,  to  attempt  to  rear  others  from  the  egg.  The 
insect  should  be  furnished  with  that  kind  of  food  most 
relished  by  the  larva  and  allowed  to  deposit  its  eggs  on  it. 
The  date  of  oviposition,  the  size  and  shape  of  the  eggs  with 
their  markings  and  ornamentation  and  the  date  of  hatching, 
should  be  carefully  preserved  by  means  of  notes  and  drawings. 
Many  of  the  coleopterous  and  dipterous  larvae  are  car- 
nivorous and  should  be  supplied  with  meat.  Other  larvae  are 
aquatic  and  these  must  be  reared  in  aquaria,  over  the  top  of 
which  gauze  or  musquito  netting  has  been  stretched.  The 
breeding  cage  should  be  kept  in  a  light,  airy  position  but 
should  not  be  exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  The 
earth  in  the  bottom  should  be  kept  moist,  otherwise  the 
health  of  the  larva  is  endangered. 

Mcst  larvae  enter  the  pupa  stage  in  the  fall,  some  climbing 
up  the  wall  of  the  cage  and  spinning  a  cocoon,  while  others 
burrow  in  the  earth  and  there  pass  the  chrysalis  portion  of 


BREEDING   LARVAE.  33 

their  life.  At  the  approach  of  cold  weather,  the  breeding 
cage  should  be  removed  to  the  cellar  and  kept  there  until 
spring.  The  collector  in  his  trips  through  the  woods  and 
fields  will  find  many  pupae  ;  these  should  be  brought  home 
and  placed  in  the  breeding  cage  and  the  imago  obtained. 
This  method  of  breeding  insects  in  confinement  has  many 
advantages,  the  most  prominent  being  that  the  images  ob- 
tained are  perfect  and  not  in  that  rubbed  condition  which  is 
frequent  in  those  caught  with  the  net. 

Occasionally,  a  larva  will  fail  to  go  through  its  proper 
changes.  This  is  generally  caused  by  the  presence  of  some 
parasite.  The  most  common  of  these  parasites  are  Ichneu- 
mon larvae.  The  adult  ichneumon  stings  the  larva  and  lays 
its  eggs ;  these  hatch  and  the  progeny  live  on  the  juices  and 
tissues  of  its  host  until  at  last  it  succumbs,  and  then  the  para- 
sites go  through  their  changes  and  finally  emerge  as  perfect 
insects.  These  ichneumon  flies  should  be  carefully  preserved 
with  full  notes  of  the  host,  etc. 

Spiders  and  Myriapods  may  be  found  everywhere  and  are 
best  preserved  in  spirit.  With  spiders  should  be  preserved 
careful  notes  of  colors,  and  the  form  of  the  web,  whether 
vertical  or  horizontal,  flat  or  dome  shaped,  etc.  Especial 
pains  should  be  taken  to  collect  the  male  which  is  much 
smaller  than  the  female  and  is  frequently  found  with  it.  The 
two  cannot  be  kept  together  alive  as  the  female  is  so  fond 
of  her  mate  that  she  frequently  eats  him.  Myriapods  are 
rather  difficult  to  preserve,  because  their  integument  is  so 
thick  that  the  alcohol  does  not  readily  penetrate  and  therefore 
the  tissues  of  the  body  decay  and  the  specimen  falls  to  pieces. 
3 


34  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

If  a  few  of  the  rings  be  punctured  so  as  to  admit  the  spirit 
to  the  interior  of  the  body  this  may  be  prevented.  The 
spirit  should  also  be  frequently  changed  during  the  first  few 
days. 

Along  with  the  myriapods  will  generally  be  found  the  ter- 
restrial Crustacea  {Oniscida),  known  under  the  common 
names  of  "  Sow-bugs  "  and  "  Pill-bugs."  These  should  also 
be  carefuly  collected  and  preserved.  These  forms  are 
greatly  desired  as  they 'have  been  almost  wholly  neglected 
by  American  naturalists  and  but  little  is  known  of  our  native 
species.  Many  of  them,  however,  seem  to  be  identical  with 
those  of  Europe,  and  no  one  should  attempt  to  describe  them 
without  access  to  the  works  of  Brandt,  Lereboullet,  Kinahan, 
etc. 

MARINE   COLLECTING. 

Every  portion  of  the  sea  teems  with  life,  which  varies,  not 
only  according  to  geographical  position  but  also  with  depth, 
character  of  bottom,  temperature  of  water,  etc.,  etc.  In 
different  circumstances  different  methods  are  employed  for 
collecting. 

Certain  forms,  principally  Amphipod  Crustacea  and  shells, 
may  be  found  on  the  shore  much  above  high-water  mark. 
Twice  during  the  day  the  receding  tide  leaves  a  portion  of 
the  shore  uncovered,  and  this  portion  "between  tide  marks" 
has  its  peculiar  fauna.  For  collecting  here,  one  should 
wear  rubber  boots  and  be  equipped  with  bottles,  forceps,  etc. 
There  should  be  a  considerable  variety  in  the  bottles  em- 
ployed. A  good  idea  is  to  have  four  or  six  large  jars  with 


MARINE   COLLECTING.  35 

wide  mouths  kept  upright  in  a  basket ;  one  jar  may  be  partly 
filled  with  alcohol  and  corked,  the  others  are  to  contain  salt 
water,  and  should  remain  open.  In  the  pockets  of  the  col- 
lector should  be  carried  a  large  number  of  "  homoeopathic 
vials,"  some  empty  and  others  with  alcohol.  A  spade  and  a 
long-handled  net  will  also  prove  useful.  Many  forms  will  be 
found  in  the  seaweed  covering  the  rocks ;  the  rocks  them- 
selves should  be  closely  examined,  turning  them  over  for  the 
purpose  if  possible,  and  the  mud  of  the  shore  should  be 
turned  up  with  the  spade  for  worms,  shells,  etc.  The  speci- 


FlG.    12. 

mens  should  be  placed  in  one  of  the  jars  of  water  unless  it 
be  thought  best  to  place  certain  forms  at  once  in  alcohol. 

For  collecting  the  forms  from  that  portion  which  is  never 
uncovered  other  methods  have  to  be  employed.  Dredging  is 
the  principal  one,  others  are  the  use  of  the  trawl,  the  "tangle," 
"pumping,"  etc. 

The  dredge,  fig.  1 2  is  a  rectangular  frame  of  iron  with  two 
scrapers  so  that  it  will  work  no  matter  which  side  up  it  may  fall. 
To  this  frame  a  net  is  laced  by  means  of  copper  wire  passed 
through  holes  in  the  scrapers  and  around  the  frame  at  the  end. 
This  net  should  be  surrounded  with  a  stout  canvas  or  leather 


NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 


cover,  so  that  it  will  not  catch  and  tear  on  rocks,  etc.,  on  the 
bottom.  Iron  handles  are  attached  to  the  frame,  and  to  one 
of  these  the  dredge  rope  is  tied ;  the  other  handle  is  made 
fast  to  the  rope  by  means  of  a  bit  of  "  spun  yarn  "  or  lighter 
cord,  as  shown  in  fig.  13.  The  object  of  this  is  that,  if  the 
dredge  be  caught  on  a  rock,  the  smaller  cord  will  break  and 
the  dredge  free  itself.  A  weight  should  be  attached  to  the 

rope  a  short  distance 
(six  to  twelve  feet)  in 
front  of  the  dredge,  so 
that  its  mouth  may  be 
kept  on  the  bottom.  The 
length  of  rope  paid  out 
should  be  about  twice 
the  depth  of  the  water 
in  which  the  dredging  is 
conducted.  In  dredging 
from  a  sail-boat  it  is  best, 
if  possible,  to  take  ad- 
vantage of  the  currents. 
Put  the  dredge  over  the 
bows,  taking  care  that  it 
FlG-  I3'  does  not  turn  inside  out 

or  foul  while  going  down,  then  let  the  boat  drift  as  though 
she  were  dragging  an  anchor.  Where  currents  are  not  strong 
enough  the  boat  head  should  be  turned  toward  the  wind,  so 
that  it  will  just  move  through  the  water,  and  then  put  the 
dredge  over  the  windward  side  near  the  stern.  The  boat  will 
then  drift  slowly,  drawing  the  dredge  over  the  bottom. 


MARINE  COLLECTING.  .  3? 

It  is  advisable  to  have  the  end  of  the  dredge  rope  fastened 
by  a  "  safety  cord,"  that  is,  a  small  cord  tied  around  the 
dredge  rope  and  made  fast  to  a  cleat.  Thus,  in  case  the 
dredge  suddenly  catch,  the  strain  will  break  the  smaller  cord 
and  allow  time  for  the  boat  to  be  turned  around  without 
breaking  the  rope  and  loosing  the  dredge.  When  dredging 
from  a  large  boat  in  deep  water  this  is  absolutely  indispen- 
sable, if  any  regard  be  had  for  the  preservation  of  the 
collecting  apparatus.  An  experienced  person  can  judge  of 
the  character  of  the  bottom,  the  condition  of  the  dredge, 
etc.,  by  the  tremor  of  the  dredge  rope. 

When  full,  the  dredge  should  be  pulled  up,  its  contents 
poured  into  sieves  and  then  washed  with  water.  The  sieves 
employed  should  be  made  of  copper  wire  and  have  fine 
meshes.  They  may  be  so  arranged  as  to  hang  over  the  side 
of  the  vessel,  or  they  may  be  placed  in  a  trough  which  will 
carry  away  the  dirty  water  without  soiling  the  boat.  When 
washed,  the  contents  of  the  dredge  are  picked  over  and  the 
specimens  preserved  according  to  their  character.  While  this 
operation  is  in  progress,  the  dredge  may  be  down  gathering 
new  treasures. 

The  trawl,  fig.  14,  generally  consists  of  a  long  beam,  six  to 
ten  feet  in  length,  bearing  a  runner  on  each  end,  and  attached 
to  the  beam  is  a  long  net  whose  lower  edge  is  weighted  with 
lead.  This  net  should  have  several  "  pockets "  and  the 
hinder  end  should  have  an  opening,  secured  with  a  string. 
The  trawl  is  attached  to  the  rope  and  used  in  a  similar  manner 
to  the  dredge.  It  can  only  be  used  on  smooth  bottoms  free 
from  rocks,  and  catches  the  fishes,  shrimps,  hydroids,  etc., 


38  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

which  affect  such  places.  Sometimes,  instead  of  having  a 
"beam,"  the  trawl  has  two  "wings"  made  of  wood  and 
loaded  on  one  edge  so  that  they  maintain  an  upright  position. 
These  wings  are  attached  to  the  rope  after  the  fashion  of  a 
kite  so  that  the  passage  through  the  water  forces  them  widely 
apart.  In  this  form,  the  upper  edge  of  the  net  should  be 
floated  with  cork. 

The  tangle,   fig.  15,  is   another  piece   of  apparatus   for 


marine  collecting  and  is  useful  for  obtaining  such  bottom 
forms  as  are  covered  with  spines.  It  consists  of  an  iron  bar, 
having  on  each  end  a  wheel.  To  the  bar  are  attached  about 
half  a  dozen  chains,  each  chain  having  every  few  inches 
bunches  of  hemp  or  untwisted  rope.  Such  animals  as  the 
Starfish,  Brittle-stars  and  Shrimps,  become  entangled  in  the 
bunches  and  are  thus  brought  to  the  surface. 

Another  method  of  obtaining  forms  from  the  bottom  is  by 
pumping.     This  was  first  employed  by  Meyer  and  Mobius  in 


MARINE    COLLECTING. 


39 


their  investigations  of  the  fauna  of  the  Bay  of  Kiel.  A  pump 
was  so  arranged  that  the  lower  end  of  the  pipe  was  within  a 
few  inches  of  the  bottom,  and  the  forms  brought  up.  by  the 

current  were   col- 

II 

lected  by  nets  and 
sieves. 

Between  the  bot- 
tom and  surface 
other  forms  may  be 
found;  to  collect 
these  a  sunken  net, 
first  used  by  Baur,  is 
employed. 

The  surface  of  the 
sea  at  times  is  cov- 
ered with  infusoria 
{Noctiluca,  etc.), 
jelly  fishes,  larval  E- 
chinoderms,  Worms 
and  Crustacea,  Cop- 
epoda,  Salpae,  Sa- 
gittae,  etc.  To  ob- 
tain these  the  surface 
net  is  employed, 
fig.  1 6.  This  con- 
sists of  a  ring  of 
brass  wire  about  a 

foot  and  a  half  in  diameter,  to  which  is  attached  a  net  of 
fine  gauze.    This  is  towed  through  the  water,  being  frequently 


40  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

pulled  in  and  washed  in  a  bucket  of  water.  On  placing 
this  water  in  the  light  it  will  be  seen  to  be  filled  with 
microscopic  forms.  The  best  time  ,and  place  for  using  the 
net  are  in  protected  harbors  when  the  surface  is  smooth  and 
the  sea  phosphorescent.  A  place  where  two  currents  meet  is 
especially  productive.  Surface  skimming  was  first  employed 
by  Johannes  Miiller. 

After  storms,  it  is  well  to  examine  the  beaches  to  obtain 
the  deep  water  forms  which  have  been  cast  on  shore. 
Among  the  "  roots  "  of  the  "  Devils'  aprons  "  (Laminaria) 


FIG.  16 

will  be  found  shells  and  starfish,  while  on  the  fronds  frequently 
occur  Sertularians  and  Bryozoa. 

Fish  stomachs  are  another  source  of  obtaining  deep-water 
forms,  and  they  frequently  contain  rare  shells.  The  fish 
themselves  should  be  carefully  examined  for  external  and 
internal  parasites. 

The  collections  should  be  cared  for  as  soon  as  possible,  as 
many  forms  soon  badly  decompose.  With  each  package  of 
specimens  should  be  placed  a  label,  written  with  soft  pencil 
on  stout  paper,  giving  exact  data  of  locality,  depth,  character 


MARINE    COLLECTING.  41 

of  bottom,  date,  etc.  The  smaller  specimens  should  be 
placed  in  homoeopathic  vials  and  not  mixed  with  larger  forms. 
For  larger  forms  the  common  glass  fruit  jars  are  convenient, 
both  for  collecting  and  as  storage  jars. 

For  the  majority  of  marine  forms,  alcohol  is  the  best  pre- 
servative. The  specimen  should  be  first  placed  in  weak  spirit 
and  after  a  few  hours  transferred  to  stronger  and  this  process 
again  repeated.  By  this  the  wateris  gradually  extracted  and  all 
undue  contraction  of  tissues  avoided.  Crustacea  and  mollusks 
intended  for  dissection  should  have  the  shell  cut  or  cracked 
before  placing  in  alcohol  so  that  the  spirit  may  readily  pene- 
trate the  soft  parts  which  otherwise  would  rapidly  decay. 

Medusae  and  some  other  forms  are  not  readily  preserved 
without  great  distortion,  owing  to  the  extremely  large  per- 
centage of  water  in  their  composition.  Various  processes 
and  preparations  have  been  employed,  but  success  is  as  much 
the  result  of  accident  as  of  any  especial  skill  or  of  any  superior 
merit  in  the  preservative.  Possibly  the  best  method  is  to 
place  the  jelly-fish  for  a  short  time  in  a  one-tenth  to  one- 
twentieth  per  cent  solution  of  osmic  acid,  and  then  transfer 
to  fifty  per  cent  alcohol  and  after  a  few  days  place  in  sixty 
per  cent  spirit.  Another  method  is  to  employ  a  solution  of 
bay  salt  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.148,  to  each  quart  of  which 
two  ounces  of  alum  have  been  added.  The  specimen  is 
daily  changed  to  a  fresh  portion  of  the  solution  for  a  week. 
Methylated  spirit,  30  under  proof,  with  forty  drops  of  creosote 
to  the  quart  has  also  been  recommended. 

It  is  frequently  desirable  to  preserve  animals  in  their  ex- 
panded condition.  So  far  as  the  writer  is  aware  no  method 
3* 


42  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

has  been  found  in  which  gasteropods  can  be  so  preserved, 
though  many  experiments  have  been  tried.  Sea  anemones, 
etc.,  may  be  readily  killed  expanded  by  gradually  adding 
picric  acid  to  the  vessel  in  which  they  are  contained.  An- 
other way  is  to  allow  them  to  die  in  sea  water  which  has 
become  stale.  The  former  method,  however,  is  the  most 
successful.  Fresh-water  Polyzoa,  it  is  said,  may  be  killed  in 
an  expanded  condition  by  adding  a  few  drops  of  alcohol  or 
brandy  to  the  water  in  which  they  are  living. 

Should  it  be  desired  to  preserve  the  shell  of  a  mollusk 
without  the  animal,  the  whole  may  be  macerated  in  water 
and  the  contents  carefully  washed  away.  Bivalves  should 
have  the  two  halves  carefully  tied  together,  while  care  should 
be  taken  to  preserve  the  opercuhim  of  such  gasteropods  as 
possess  it,  as  it  has  considerable  systematic  value. 

The  same  methods  may  be  employed  in  collecting  fresh- 
water invertebrata  as  in  marine.  Ponds  and  lakes  can  readily 
be  dredged  and  a  trawl  or  siene  will  frequently  bring  up 
numbers  of  rare  forms.  The  beds  of  rivers  contain  numer- 
ous shells  (Strepomatidae,  Viviparidae,  Limnaeidae,  Unionidae 
and  Cycladidae) ,  for  which  careful  search  should  be  made. 
A  dipper,  with  a  perforated  bottom,  on  a  long  stick,  is  fre- 
quently a  handy  substitute  for  a  dredge,  in  shallow  water. 

Land  shells  are  most  numerous  in  a  limestone  country.  A 
good  place  to  hunt  for  them  is  under  boards  or  fallen  leaves. 


LABELLING  AND  MOUNTING, 


OF  THE 

UNIVERSITY 


CHAPTER  II. 


LABELLING  AND   MOUNTING   SPECIMENS. 

IT  is  on  these  two  points,  labelling  and  mounting,  that 
much  of  the  instructiveness  of  a  museum  or  collection  de- 
pends. The  labelling  conveys  the  information  regarding 
the  specimen,  while  the  mounting  places  the  specimen  in  the 
best  position  for  observation  and  study. 

LABELLING. 

The  labels  used  should;  in  size,  be  in  proportion  not  only 
to  the  size  and  prominence  of  the  specimen,  but  also  in  re- 
lation to  the  amount  of  information  to  be  conveyed.  It  is 
best  to  have  but  few  sizes  and  to  have  a  certain  amount  of 
regularity  in  the  labels  employed.  The  most  useful  size  is 
one  inch  by  two  and  one-half  inches,  but  larger  and  smaller 
ones  must  be  occasionally  used  and  the  sizes  of  these  must  be 
selected  by  those  in  charge  of  the  collections.  The  smallest, 
except  those  for  insects,  should  measure  not  less  than  one- 
half  by  one  and  one-half  inches.  For  insects  a  label  of  one- 
half  by  three-fourths  of  an  inch  is  very  useful.  The  labels 
of  whatever  size  employed  should  be  as  plain  as  possible  and 

(45) 


46  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

the  printing  should  be  confined  to  a  simple  border.  This 
border  possibly  looks  best  when  printed  in  red  ink,  and  that 
color  is  employed  for  the  purpose  by  most  museums.  Heavy 
paper  or  cardboard  is  best  for  the  labels.  When  the  label 
is  to  be  pasted,  paper  is  preferable,  but  in  all  other  cases  the 
cardboard  possesses  the  greater  advantages. 

As  mentioned  above,  the  purpose  of  the  label  is  to  convey 
information  and  this  should  be  expressed  in  as  concise  and 
plain  a  manner  as  possible.  In  some  museums  (e.  g.,  that  of 
the  Boston  Society  of  Natural  History),  all  labels  are  the 
product  of  the  printer's  art  and  several  copies  of  each  are 
struck  off  at  once,  thus  affording  a  supply  from  which  to  re- 
plenish as  those  on  the  specimens  become  defaced  or  injured. 
The  expense  for  this  is  far  less  than  would  be  supposed. 

In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  this  plan,  cheap  as  it 
has  been  found  to  be,  is  beyond  the  means  of  museums  and 
hence  the  labels  should  be  written.  This  writing  should 
be  done  with  black  ink  and  in  a  legible  hand,  the  ordinary 
"  marking  hand  "  being  well  adapted  for  this  purpose.  For 
ink,  there  is  nothing  better  than  India  ink  ground  up  in 
acetic  acid.  Windsor  and  Newton's  liquid  India  ink  is  thus 
prepared  and  is  handiest  for  the  purpose.  When  it  becomes 
thick  by  evaporation,  it  can  be  diluted  by  the  use  of  acetic 
acid.  Do  not  use  water  to  dilute  it  as  then  the  ink  is  spoiled. 

The  principal  points  which  are  usually  to  be  enumerated 
on  a  label  are  the  generic  and  specific  names,  locality,  date, 
collector  and  donor.  The  adjoined  label  copied  from  one  in 
the  Boston  Society's  museum  shows  the  usual  form.  The 
generic  name  should  always  begin  with  a  capital,  but  opinions 


LABELLING  AND    MOUNTING  SPECIMENS. 


47 


differ  as  to  the  initial  of  the  specific,  but  with  Americans  the 
weight  of  authority  seems  to  be  in  favor  of  always  beginning 
the  specific  name  with  a  small  letter  whether  derived  from  a 
proper  name  or  not.  It  should  not  under  any  view  begin 
with  a  capital  unless  derived  from  a  proper  name.  Following 
the  scientific  name  comes  the  "authority."  Here  again 
opinions  differ,  some  claiming  that  the  name  of  the  person 
who  first  described  the  species  should  be  given,  no  matter 
whether  it  belong  to  the  genus  under  which  it  originally  was 
described  or  not.  Others  claim  that  the  name  to  be  used  is 


Cat.  III! 


Orig.  1557 


Nanemys  guttata  (Sch.)  Ag. 

SPECKLED    TORTOISE. 

S.  Kneeland.  Cohasset,  Mass. 


FIG.  17. 

that  of  the  person  who  first  used  the  generic  and  specific 
name  together.  A  third  party  adopt  a  compromise  and  give 
both  names  together,  that  of  the  describer  of  the  species  in 
parenthesis,  followed  by  that  of  the  one  who  first  used  the 
generic  and  specific  combination  which  is  adopted.  For  in- 
stance, Herbst,  in  1 796,  described  a  hermit  crab  under  the 
name  Cancer  sclopetarius.  In  1852,  Dana  characterized  the 
genus  Clibanarius,  and  in  1859,  Stimpson  ascertained  that 
Herbst's  species  should  be  assigned  to  Dana's  genus.  Now 
according  to  the  first  method  the  name  would  be  written 
Clibanarius  sclopetarius  Herbst ;  according  to  the  second 


48 


NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 


Clibanarius  sclopetarius  Stimpson  ;  while  the  latter  would  be 
Clibanarius  sclopetarius  (Herbst)  Stimpson.  The  second 
and  third  methods  are  most  commonly  adopted,  the  third 
expressing  more  than  the  others.  The  best  authorities  omit 
any  comma  between  the  scientific  name  and  the  authority. 

Should  the  specimen  be  a  type,  an  abnormal  form  or  im- 
mature stage,  or   possess   any  important  features,  that   fact 
should  be  noticed  on  the  label.     The  original  labels  coming 
with  a  specimen  should  be  scrupulously  preserved  in  con- 
nection with  it,  as  they  give 
avalueand   authenticity 
which  the  specimen  could 
not  otherwise  have. 

Various  methods  have 
been  devised  for  affixing 
labels  to  specimens.  When 
the  object  is  fastened  to 

TIG.  18. 

a  tablet,  it  is  best  to  affix 

the  label  with  paste  or  mucilage,  or  with  short  pins,  one 
at  each  end  of  the  label.  A  mucilage  made  of  equal 
parts  of  gum  tragacanth  and  gum  arabic  in  water,  to  which 
a  few  drops  of  glycerine  and  carbolic  acid  have  been  added, 
is  possibly  as  good  as  any  for  fastening  paper  to  wood,  glass, 
stone  or  metal.  In  all  other  cases  the  label  holder  devised 
by  the  late  Caleb  Cooke  is  very  advantageous.  It  is  readily 
made  by  folding  a  strip  of  thin  tin  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in 
width  in  the  manner  shown  in  fig.  18.  The  label  is  placed  in 
the  folds  shown  above  and  below  (a  and  6)  which  are  then 
closed  with  a  pair  of  pincers.  The  label  and  holder  are  then 


LABELLING  AND   MOUNTING  SPECIMENS. 


49 


fastened  to  the  object  holding  the  specimen.  In  the  case  of 
a  bird  stand  or  wooden  tablet,  this  is  effected  by  perforating 
the  end  c  and  then  using  a  tack.  When  applied  to  a  bottle, 
copper  wire  is  used.  The  end  c  is  folded  around  the  wire 
and  the  wire  then  placed  around  the  neck  of  the  bottle  and 
the  ends  twisted  tightly.  The  advantages  of  this  method  are 
many ;  the  label  is  firmly  held  and  at  the  same  time  can  be 
readily  removed  by  loosening  the 
folds  with  a  knife.  All  original  labels 
can  be  safely  preserved  out  of  sight 
by  placing  between  the  public  label 
and  the  tin  strip.  The  labels  are 
also  kept  flat  and  by  bending  the  tin 
at  b  can  be  readily  disposed  so  as  to 
be  more  easily  read  when  on  a  high 
or  low  shelf. 

In  the  case  of  alcoholic  speci- 
mens a  label  should  always  be  kept 
in  the  bottle,  as  well  as  one  on  the 
outside.  This  label  should  be 
written  with  a  soft  lead  pencil,  or 
with  India  ink  dissolved  in  acetic 
acid  (never  with  common  ink)  on  parchment  or  very  strong 
paper.  This  label,  which  is  intended  only  for  the  student 
and  curator,  should  contain  every  item  of  information  re- 
garding the  specimens. 

Insect-labels  should  be  kept  on  the  pin  and  should  be  small. 
It  is  usual  in  arranging  insects  to  place  them  in  rows  and 
then  in  the  farther  left'  hand  corner  is  placed  the  family  label, 


FIG.  19. 


50  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

next  comes  the  generic,  and  then  the  specific ;  the  insects 
belonging  to  the  species  are  then  extended  in  a  transverse 
row  and  following  them  on  the  left  of  the  case,  comes  the 
next  specific  label  and  so  on.  Some  have  adopted  a  method 
of  showing  the  geographical  distribution  of  forms  at  a  glance 
by  the  color  of  the  label,  and  in  geological  collections  the 
"age"  by  the  same  method,  but  it  is  doubtful  if  it  repays 
the  extra  trouble  involved. 

Labels  can  be  obtained  of  "  regular"  sizes  of  most  dealers 
in  naturalists'  supplies  at  a  cheaper  rate  than  they  can  be 
produced  by  local  printers.  Generic  and  specific  names  for 
labelling  certain  groups  of  insects  are  also  kept  on  sale  and 
well  repay  the  cost. 

Catalogues  are  important,  though  some  of  the  largest  mu- 
seums almost  wholly  dispense  with  them.  The  best  results 
follow  the  use  of  the  double  system  employing  both  books 
and  cards.  In  a  book  prepared  for  the  purpose,  each  speci- 
men is  entered  as  received,  with  all  possible  information. 
For  this  the  books  should  be  ruled  in  columns  for  the  fellow- 
ing  entries :  original  number,  current  number,  number  of 
specimens,  name,  sex  and  age,  where  collected,  when  col- 
lected, by  whom  collected,  donor,  remarks.  A  number  is 
then  affixed  to  the  specimens  corresponding  to  the  entry  in 
the  book  catalogue.  Sheets  of  printed  numbers  for  this 
purpose  are  kept  for  sale  by  dealers  in  naturalists'  supplies. 
Where  possible,  parchment  numbers  should  be  used  and  tied 
to  the  specimen.  Even  better  than  parchment  is  the  method, 
which  is  now  extensively  adopted,  of  stamping  the  number 
on  sheet  zinc  with  the  steel  punches  which  may  be  bought  at 


LABELLING  AND   MOUNTING   SPECIMENS. 


any  hardware  store  and  then  affixing  the  zinc  to  the  speci- 
men with  stout  twine  or  small  copper  wire.  It  is,  however, 
difficult  by  any  ordinary  method  to  affix  a  label  permanently 
to  a  fossil  or  mineral ;  strings  and  wires  will  become  loose 
and  paste  and  gum  will  crack  off.  In  such  case,  the  writer 
has  adopted  the  method  of  putting  on  each  specimen  (in  the 
least  conspicuous  place)  a  small  spot  of  white  paint,  and  on 
this,  when  dry,  the  number  is  written  with  a  pen ;  there  is  no 
danger  of  such  a  label  being  detached  and  lost.  In  the 
book  catalogue  the  specimens  are  arranged  simply  accord- 
ing to  number  and  without  regard  to  systematic  relations, 
which  are  to  be  found  in  the  card  catalogue. 

This  card  catalogue  is  made  of  cards  arranged  alphabeti- 
cally or  otherwise  as  may  be  desired,  each  bearing  at  the  top 
the  generic  and  specific  name  and  below  the  desired  informa- 
tion. These  cards  should  be  about  three  by  five  inches ; 
their  appearance,  etc.,  are  best  seen  from  the  following  dia- 
gram. 


ARIUS  EQUESTRIS.—  BAIRD  AND  GIRARD. 

Cat. 
No. 

No. 
Spec. 

Age. 

Locality. 

When 
collected. 

Nature. 

Collected  by 

836 
1142 

i 
4 

Adult 
Young 

Indianola, 
Tex. 
Brownsville, 
Tex. 

18:4 
April  25,  1858. 

Skull 

Al- 
coholic 

John  H.Clark. 

Capt. 
Van  Vliet. 

By  this  system  of  book  and  card  catalogues,  it  can  at 
once  be  seen  exactly  what  specimens  the  museum  contains, 
and  also,  if  the  number  be  preserved,  any  lost  labels  can  be 


52  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

duplicated.  It  is  convenient  to  have  the  catalogues  subdi- 
vided into  groups  corresponding  to  the  larger  divisions  of  the 
animal  kingdom,  others  for  minerals,  fossils,  etc.  The  cards 
can  then  be  kept  in  drawers  or  trays  and  any  necessary  in- 
terpolations can  be  made  as  desired.  Cards  suitable  for  this 
can  be  obtained  of  standard  sizes  at  the  Readers'  and  Writers' 
Economy  stores  in  Boston,  New  York  and  other  large  cities. 


MOUNTING   SPECIMENS    FOR   EXHIBITION. 

Mammals  and  birds  designed  for  exhibition  are  usually 
stuffed  and  mounted  on  stands.  It  does  not  fall  within  the 
scope  of  this  work  to  describe  the  methods  employed  by  the 
taxidermist  in  stuffing  skins.  It  is  well  enough,  however,  to 
reiterate  the  advice  given  on  another  page  that  the  stand  em- 
ployed should  be  as  simple  as  possible  and  all  mica  dust, 
moss  and  artificial  leaves  be  discarded  as  they  detract  greatly 
from  the  appearance  of  a  collection  when  viewed  from  a 
scientific  standpoint.  On  the  underside  of  each  stand,  all 
information  regarding  the  specimen  should  be  written  with 
a  soft  lead  pencil,  paint  or  India  ink.  Skeletons  and  skulls 
should  be  supported  on  wires  firmly  fixed  at  their  lower  end 
in  a  board.  Ward's  preparations  are  models  in  this  respect. 

Birds'  eggs  may  be  kept  in  the  nest  in  which  they  belong. 
Should  the  nest  be  wanting,  the  eggs  present  a  very  hand- 
some appearance  when  placed  in  paper  trays  lined  with  pink 
cotton  wool.  The  most  common  method,  however,  is  to 


MOUNTING   SPECIMENS    FOR   EXHIBITION.  53 

mount  on  wooden  tablets.  These  wooden  tablets,  which  are 
very  generally  adopted  in  museums  for  specimens  of  all  kinds, 
should  be  made  of  whitewood.  The  grain  of  pine  shows  too 
plainly  while  basswood  warps  badly.  It  is  best  to  have  them 
made  with  a  depression  in  which  to  mount  the  specimen  and 
an  elevated  portion  on  which  to  affix  the  label.  The  form  is 
shown  in  section  in  fig.  20.  These  can  be  made  in  long 


FIG.  20. 

strips  at  any  planing  mill  and  then  sawed  up  in  lengths  to 
suit.  The  sizes  should  be  so  adjusted  that  two  of  the  smallest 
will  equal  the  next  in  size  and  so  on.  They  then  readily  fit 
together  and  fill  up  a  case  without  any  bad  gaps.  The 
smallest  should  be  one  inch  wide  by  two  long,  the  next  in 
size  two  inches  square,  then  two  by  four,  etc. 

These  tablets  are  usually  painted  dead  black.  A  cheap 
way  of  accomplishing  this  is  with  lampblack  mixed  with 
spirits  of  turpentine  and  a  very  little  oil.  This,  however,  is 
apt  to  rub  off  slightly  and  soil  the  hands  and  cases.  A  more 
expensive  paint,  which  produces  the  best  results,  is  the  ivory 
black  used  by  carriage  makers.  This  should  be  mixed  with 
a  little  shellac  varnish  and  applied  with  a  brush.  Sometimes 


54  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

different  colors  are  used  for  these  tablets ;  this  in  the  case 
of  geological  collections  has  its  advantages,  as  different  for- 
mations may  be  indicated  by  the  color  of  the  tablet  bearing 
the  specimen.  The  general  effect,  however,  is  not  so  good  as 
when  a  uniform  black  is  employed  in  all  departments  of  the 
museum.  Various  substitutes  for  the  wooden  tablets  have 
been  proposed  and  each  has  its  advocates.  Pasteboard, 
slate  and  glass  have  all  been  used,  but  .wood,  taking  every- 
thing into  consideration,  is  the  best. 

The  specimens  are  affixed  to  these  tablets  in  various  ways. 
A  common  method  is  with  "grafting  wax."  The  grafting 
wax,  such  as  is  used  by  gardeners,  is  kept  melted  in  a  glue 
pot  over  a  spirit  lamp  and  a  drop  taken  up  with  a  brush  and 
placed  in  the  desired  spot  on  the  tablet  and  the  specimen 
placed  on  it,  and  a  few  moments  only  are  required  to  set  the 
wax  and  hold  the  specimen  firmly.  If  at  any  time  it  be  de- 
sired to  remove  the  object  from  the  tablet,  a  knife  blade 
slightly  warmed  will  accomplish  it,  and  all  wax  may  be  cleaned 
from  the  specimen  by  alcohol  or  turpentine.  Others  employ 
sealing  wax  dissolved  in  alcohol,  or  common  glue,  for  fasten- 
ing the  specimens,  but  while  they  hold  the  object  securely, 
it  cannot  be  as  readily  removed. 

Many  minute  forms  (shells,  etc.)  cannot  be  fastened  di- 
rectly to  the  tablets  and  at  such  times  small  homoeopathic 
vials  are  used.  The  specimens  are  placed  in  these  and  the 
vials  are  then  stopped  with  a  cork  or  a  bit  of  cotton  wool, 
and  then  cemented  to  the  tablet  by  wax  or  glue.  A  label 
should  always  be  placed  in  each  vial.  A  great  desideratum 


BOTTLES   AND   VIALS.  55 

for  this  purpose  is  a  vial  of  quadrangular  outline  with  clear 
flat  sides. 

In  the  case  of  the  large  branching  corals  (gorgonias,  madre- 
pores, etc.),  a  square  box  is  taken  and  filled  with  plaster  of 
Paris  mixed  with  water ;  the  coral  is  then  placed  in  this  in 
an  upright  position  and  supported  until  the  plaster  sets.  The 
box  is  then  taken  apart  and  all  rough  places  smoothed  with  a 
case  knife,  and  then  the  plaster  is  painted  with  lampblack 
and  turpentine.  This  forms  a  heavy  base  which  holds  the 
specimen  uprightly.  The  label  may  be  applied  to  this  base. 
The  coarse  "builders'  "  plaster  should  be  used  for  this  pur- 
pose, as  it  is  much  stronger  (as  well  as  much  cheaper)  than 
the  fine. 

BOTTLES   AND    VIALS. 

In  every  museum,  vessels  of  glass  are  largely  employed 
and  form  a  considerable  item  of  expense.  For  exhibition 
purposes,  pains  should  be  taken  to  obtain  clear  glass,  free 
from  bubbles  and  irregularities  producing  distortion  in  the 
view  of  the  specimen.  Glass  stoppered  vials  and  jars  also 
are  preferable  as  they  not  only  add  to  the  appearance  of  the 
collection,  but  they  are  less  liable  to  leak,  and  permit  the 
alcohol  to  escape  by  evaporation  than  are  those  with  corks. 
The  mouth  of  jars,  vials,  etc.,  should  be  as  large  as  possible 
so  that  specimens  proportionate  to  the  size  of  the  bottle  may 
be  readily  admitted  ;  otherwise  a  larger  amount  of  alcohol  is 
required  than  is  necessary  for  the  preservation  of  the  specimen. 


56  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

It  is  best  in  the  case  of  minute  specimens  to  place  them  in 
homoeopathic  vials  with  alcohol,  then  stop  the  vial  with  cork 
and  place  the  whole,  cork  downward,  in  a  larger  bottle  which 
in  turn  is  to  be  filled  with  alcohol.  This  renders  it  easy  at 
any  time  to  find  the  specimen  which  would  not  be  the  case 
were  it  loose  in  a  large  bottle,  while  the  alcohol  in  the  outer 
vial  will  have  to  evaporate  until  the  cork  of  the  smaller  is 
reached  before  there  is  the  slightest  danger  of  the  contents 
of  the  inner  bottle  being  injured. 

The  best  homoeopathic  vials  for  museum  purposes  are 
those  made  with  straight  sides  without  any  neck  or  shoulder, 
as  then  the  inside  can  be  readily  cleansed  and  all  specimens 
can  be  readily  taken  out  for  examination.  Rubber  stoppers 
do  not  answer  overwell  for  museum  purposes,  as  the  alcohol 
is  apt  to  affect  them  and  to  set  free  the  earth  with  which 
they  are  adulterated,  and  cover  the  objects  with  a  dense 
white  precipitate. 

In  the  Museum  of  Comparative  Zoology  at  Cambridge, 
oval  glass  jars  with  flat  sides  are  used  for  starfishes  and 
ophiurians.  The  mouth  of  the  jar  is  ground  and  covered 
with  a  glass  plate  fastened  by  cement  and  also  by  a  strip  of 
tinfoil  extending  on  both  the  glass  cover  and  the  sides  of  the 
jar.  The  specimen  is  spread  on  glass  or  mica  plates  and  fas- 
tened with  thread,  bristles  or  silvered  wire,  and  the  whole 
placed  in  the  spirit. 

Dissections  of  animal  forms  are  preserved  in  alcohol  by 
extending  on  some  substance  not  affected  by  the  spirit.  The 
principal  ones  employed  are  mica,  glass  and  wax.  The  ob- 


BOTTLES  AND  VIALS.  57 

ject  is  fastened  to  the  glass  or  mica  by  strings  passed  through 
holes  bored  for  the  purpose.  These  holes  can  readily  be  bored 
in  glass,  with  a  three-cornered  file  moistened  with  spirits  of 
turpentine  and  mounted  in  a  drillstock.  When  wax  is  used 
the  specimen  is  fixed  with  insect  pins.  It  is  well  to  blacken  the 
wax  by  melting  it  and  stirring  in  lampblack.  This  forms  a 
good  background  against  which  all  details  are  readily  seen. 
Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  selecting  the  wax,  which 
should  be  pure.  The  common  adulterations  of  wax  are  water, 
tallow  and  lard,  and  the  presence  of  either  of  these  produces 
a  flocculent  precipitate  in  alcohol,  which  settles  on  the  spec- 
imen and  ruins  it,  as  it  is  very  difficult  to  remove. 

For  storage  purposes  it  is  not  necessary  to  use  so  good  a 
quality  of  glass  as  for  exhibition.  A  very  useful  article  is  the 
ordinary  fruit  jar  with  glass  cover  and  screw  top.  The  rub- 
ber of  these  jars  will  occasionally  have  to  be  renewed  as  the 
alcohol  hardens  the  rubber  and  renders  it  brittle.  At  other 
times  large  copper  cans  are  used,  fitted  with  wide  openings 
secured  by  screw  covers,  while  for  the  largest  forms  special 
tanks  of  copper  or  zinc  are  made.  A  barrel  can  be  readily 
fitted  up  for  containing  specimens,  by  carefully  smoothing 
off  one  end,  removing  the  head  and  adjusting  a  wooden 
cover  with  rubber  packing  over  the  end.  To  the  sides  of  the 
barrel  are  attached  iron  bars  terminated  by  screws  and  these 
project  through  the  lid  and  by  means  of  nuts  fasten  it 
tightly.  In  any  of  these  large  storage  vessels,  numerous 
small  specimens  may  be  kept  by  wrapping  each  (with  its 
label)  in  millinet,  mosquito  bar  or  coarse  cotton  cloth.  The 


58  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

same  course  may  be  pursued  when  sending  specimens  from 
the  field  or  from  one  museum  to  another.  With  fishes  so 
sent  it  is  usual  to  place  the  labels  under  the  gill  covers. 

Smaller  specimens  may  be  stored  in  cork-stoppered  bot- 
tles. A  cheap  way  of  obtaining  these  is  to  buy  the  empty 
morphine  and  quinine  bottles  of  the  apothecary.  These 
are  of  good  glass  and  have  wide  mouths.  Corks  for  these 
may  readily  be  rendered  tight  by  immersing  in  melted  par- 
afifine,  or  better  in  paraffine  dissolved  in  benzine.  These 
storage  bottles  should  be  so  arranged  that  any  desired  spec- 
imen can  readily  be  found. 

One  thing  that  should  be  constantly  kept  in  mind  in  the 
museum  is  that  it  is  as  easy  to  have  too  much  on  exhibition 
as  too  little.  The  primary  object  of  a  collection  is  to  in- 
struct, but  with  many  confusion  only  results.  Every  speci- 
men should  not  be  on  exhibition ;  nor  should  every  species 
or  genus.  It  should  be  the  object  of  the  curator  to  make 
the  collection  typical;  to  select  those  species  which  best 
illustrate  the  larger  groups,  while  all  others  are  relegated 
to  drawers,  boxes,  etc.,  where  they  will  be  readily  accessible  to 
the  special  student  but  will  not  aid  in  confusing  the  average 
museum  visitor. 

The  space  thus  gained  should  be  utilized  by  labels  and 
cards,  conveying  in  plain  language  the  characters  of  the  va- 
r'.ous  groups.  It  is  also  well  to  place  in  the  cases  drawings 
illustrating  the  structure  and  growth  of  the  various  classes  of 
the  animal  kingdom.  These  may  be  plain  or  colored  ac- 
cording to  nature,  or  conventionally,  to  show  more  clearly 


BOTTLES   AND   VIALS.  59 

the  details  of  structure.     The  following  conventional  colors 
are  generally  adopted : 

Red,  heart  and  arterial  circulation. 

Blue,  veinous  circulation. 

Green,  Iher. 

Purple,  kidneys. 

Yellow,  ovaries. 

Orange,  testes. 

Brown,  alimentary  canal. 

Neutral  tint,  nerves. 

Large  labels  can  be  easily  written  with  the  "Audiographic 
Pen,"  invented  by  Mr.  D.  S.  Holman,  of  Philadelphia.  This 
has  since  been  extensively  sold  under  the  name  of  "Automatic 
shading  Pen,"  and  can  be  obtained  at  any  stationery  store. 


ROOMS  AND  CASES, 


UNIVERSITY 


CHAPTER  III. 


ROOMS  AND  CASES. 

IN  a  work  intended  for  all  classes  of  naturalists,  no  definite 
rules  can  be  laid  down  to  govern  in  each  case  the  construction 
of  the  home  of  the  collections.  In  many  instances,  the  mu- 
seum is  a  private  one  and  is  kept  in  a  room  of  the  dwelling 
house ;  between  this  and  such  immense  collections  as  those 
of  the  British  Museum  and  the  Jardin  des  Plantes,  every 
gradation  may  be  found,  each  requiring  peculiar  accommo- 
dations. 

In  the  case  of  private  collections,  a  room  should  be  se- 
lected, if  possible  having  a  northern  exposure,  well  lighted 
and  fitted  up  with  conveniences  suitable  to  the  nature  of  the 
specimens.  The  windows  should  be  screened  with  curtains 
of  yellow  "holland"  as  this  color  tends  to  exclude  the  ac- 
tinic rays  of  light  and  to  preserve  the  specimens  from  fading. 

For  larger  collections,  such  as  are  possessed  by  most  col- 
leges and  many  societies,  more  extensive  accommodations  are 
necessary  and  a  building  should  be  especially  devoted  to 
them.  The  average  college  museum  building  is  but  poorly 
adapted  for  its  purpose ;  it  is  the  result  of  consulting  archi- 
tects who  know  nothing  of  the  requisites  of  such  edifices. 

(63) 


64  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

The  architect  draws  some  showy  or  striking  "elevation"  with 
useless  towers  and  spires  and  narrow  windows,  and  leaves  in- 
ternal arrangements  to  chance.  The  result  is  an  ill  contrived 
building,  with  inaccessible  and  useless  rooms,  numerous  dark 
corners  and  disagreeable  cross  lights.  But  the  greatest  dis- 
advantage lies  in  the  impossibility  of  maintaining  anything 
like  a  systematic  arrangement  of  the  collections.  The  proper 
way  is  first  to  arrange  the  rooms  and  apartments  and 
then  to  accommodate  the  walls  and  the  roof  to  them.  It 
would  be  well  for  all  having  charge  of  the  erection  of  build- 
ings for  the  display  of  specimens  of  Natural  History  to  visit 
some  of  the  larger  museum  buildings  such  as  those  at  Bos- 
ton, Cambridge,  New  Haven  and  Washington  and  consult 
with  the  authorities  there  in  charge  as  to  the  advantages  and 
disadvantages  of  the  building  occupied  by  them.  It  might 
also  be  an  advantage  to  visit  the  museums  of  New  York, 
Princeton  and  above  all  Philadelphia,1  to  see  how  a  museum 
building  should  not  be  constructed. 

The  following  plan  is  here  inserted  as  a  hint  which  might 
be  useful  in  the  construction  of  a  building  of  moderate  size. 
It  contains  some  features  of  value  but  can  of  course  be  mod- 
ified to  suit  circumstances.  It  is  primarily  designed  for  the 
use  of  the  average  college. 

1  The  cases  at  Princeton  are  (or,  were,  at  the  writer's  visit)  worse  if  possible  than  the  . 
building,  while  no  museum  building  could  be  less  adapted  for  its  purpose  than  that 
of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences  of  Philadelphia.  Those  collections  of  Europe 
which  are  tucked  away  in  the  corners  of  some  old  castle  or  which  are  displayed  in  the 
cloisters  of  some  former  monastery  are  fully  as  well  provided  for.  The  building  is  the 
result  of  architects  working  without  intelligent  supervision  and  was  constructed  by  the 
Academy  in  direct  opposition  to  the  views  of  its  best  scientific  members. 


ROOMS. 


It  consists  of  a  main  portion  and  a  wing  each  two  stories 
in  height.  The  main  portion  is  a  square  of  say  fifty  feet. 
The  walls  are  solid,  there  being  no  windows  in  the  sides. 


DOOR- 


•ARGH 


LECTURE    ROOM. 


FIG.  21. 


The  second  floor  consists  of  merely  a  gallery  and  thus  the 
whole  of  the  main  building  is  a  single  room,  and  lighted  by 

a  lantern  window  in  the  roof.     The  walls  are  occupied  on 
5 


66 


NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 


both  floors  with  vertical  cases,  and  the  lower  floor  is  taken  up 
with  table  cases  which  are  best  for  all  specimens  except 
mounted  vertebrates  and  alcoholic  collections.  The  gallery  is 


RAIL    CA3LS 


STUDY 


IT 


LABORATORY 


"\ 

J  R  R  R 


FIG.  22. 


surrounded  with  a  railing  and  this  may  also  bear  horizontal 
cases. 

Connected  with  the  main  portion  by  arches,  on  each  floo» 


BUILDINGS ,  67 

is  a  wing  of  say  thirty  feet  square.  This  wing  is  lighted  by- 
windows  in  the  ordinary  way  and  contains  on  the  ground  floor 
a  hall  with  stairs  leading  to  the  basement  and  the  second  story ; 
a  closet  for  the  janitor  and  a  lecture  room.  On  the  second 
floor  are  the  laboratory,  a  room  for  necessary  books  of  refer- 
ence, and  a  small  study  for  the  professor  or  curator  in  charge. 
In  the  basement  can  be  placed  the  means  of  heating ;  room 
for  the  storage  of  specimens,  macerating  rooms,  etc.  If  pos- 
sible, both  basement  and  laboratory  should  be  supplied  with 
water. 

For  museums  of  the  larger  class,  this  plan  will  of  course 
prove  inadequate  and  some  other  must  be  adopted.  The 
architect  and  others  having  the  erection  of  a  museum  in 
charge  should  visit  the  larger  museums  and  consult  with  those 
having  them  in  charge. 

A  museum  building  should  always,  if  possible,  be  isolated 
and  built  in  the  most  thoroughly  fire-proof  manner.  The  walls 
should  be  of  brick  or  stone,  the  girders,  joists,  etc.,  of  iron, 
and  the  floors  of  brick,  iron,  slate  or  some  other  incombusti- 
ble material.  Museums  are  far  too  valuable  to  be  entrusted  to 
wooden  buildings  and  even  those  thought  to  be  fire-proof  have 
not  always  proved  so.  The  fires  at  Portland  and  Chicago 
each  destroyed  valuable  collections  stored  in  buildings  which 
were  supposed  to  be  secure  against  the  devouring  element. 

One  feature  which  should  be  adopted  in  every  museum 
building  is  adequate  provision  for  laboratory  work.  In  col- 
lege museums  this  is  best  accomplished  by  having  a  large 
room  where  all  can  be  at  once  under  the  supervision  of  the 
instructor.  In  buildings  for  society  purposes  it  is  better  to 


68  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

have  a  number  of  small  rooms  for  this,  which  may  be  occu- 
pied by  those  of  the  members  who  care  to  do  any  work  in 
the  building.  In  the  Philadelphia  Academy  building  these 
rooms  are  in  alcoves  leading  from  the  Library ;  in  the  Bos- 
ton Society's  Building  there  are  two  on  each  floor  leading 
from  the  exhibition  halls  ;  in  the  New  York  Museum  they  are 
all  on  the  upper  floor  of  the  building. 


CASES. 

The  cases  are  by  no  means  an  unimportant  portion  of  a  mu- 
seum and  great  care  should  be  taken  in  their  construction. 
It  will  not  do  to  leave  them  entirely  to  a  builder  or  cabinet 
maker ;  a  naturalist  should  also  be  consulted.  From  an  omis- 
sion in  this  respect  the  cases  in  many  museums  are  poorly 
constructed.  Notable  examples  are  to  be  found  in  the  in- 
stances of  Brown  University  and  Princeton  and  Williams  Col- 
leges. At  Brown  the  cases  are  very  loosely  constructed,  leav- 
ing large  holes  for  the  entrance  of  dust  and  vermin ;  at 
Princeton  the  extent  of  sash  nearly  equals  that  of  glass,  ren- 
dering it  almost  impossible  to  see  the  specimens  on  ac- 
count of  darkness  ;  while  those  at  Williams  cannot  be  tightly 
closed  and  the  shelves  are  permanent  and  cannot  be  altered 
in  height.  On  the  other  hand,  the  cases  of  the  American 
Museum  in  New  York,  Yale  College  and  the  Peabody  Mu- 
seum of  Archaeology  at  Cambridge  are  models,  but  are  very 
expensive.  The  cases  of  the  Peabody  Academy  of  Science 
at  Salem,  Mass.,  are  very  good  and  others  can  be  built  like 


CASES.  69 

them  at  a  cost  not  exceeding  that  of  a  poor  case.  It  would 
be  well  for  those  having  charge  of  the  equipment  of  a  mu- 
seum to  visit  these-  four  museums  before  building  their  own, 
and  thus  avoid  the  endless  grumbling  and  dissatisfaction 
which  might  otherwise  follow. 

Cases  for  exhibition  may  be  divided  into  two  groups,  ver- 
tical and  horizontal.  The  former  are  generally  either  placed 
against  the  wall  or  are  used  to  divide  the  exhibition  room 
into  alcoves.  Each  upright  case  should  have  its  own  floor, 
the  floor  of  the  room  never  being  employed  for  that  pur- 
pose. Cases  placed  against  the  wall  should  also  have  their 
own  back.  Otherwise  any  settling  of  the  building  will  pro- 
duce cracks  through  which  dust  and  vermin  find  easy  access. 
Both  floor  and  back  should  be  made  of  thoroughly  seasoned 
matched  lumber,  or  better  still  of  zinc  and  should  be  fastened 
to  the  rest  of  the  case  without  the  slightest  crack.  The  rest 
of  the  case  should  be  of  well  seasoned  timber,  as  light  as  is 
consistent  with  strength,  while  large  panes  of  good  glass  per- 
mit a  clear  view  of  the  specimens  exhibited.  The  doors 
should  be  very  firmly  made  so  that  they  cannot  sag  and  plenty 
of  hinges  should  be  used  in  hanging  them.  Means  should 
be  employed  of  fastening  them  tightly  in  at  least  three  places. 
The  lock  invented  by  Prof.  E.  S.  Morse,  improved  and  manu- 
factured by  Mr.  Jenks  at  Middleboro,  Mass.,  is  admirably 
adapted  for  this  purpose.  In  this  lock  all  bolts  act  as  wedges 
drawing  the  door  closely  against  the  projecting  portion  of 
the  jamb. 

To  render  the  joint  between  the  door  and  the  frame  tight, 
several  methods  have  been  employed.  Sometimes  a  thin 


7o 


NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 


strip  of  cotton  wool  has  been  tacked  to  the  door,  at  oth- 
ers the  door  and  frame  are  fitted  with  tongue  and  groove. 
This  is  possibly  the  best  method  and  is,  employed  in  the  Yale 
cases.  A  cheap  means  has  been  adopted  at  the  Peabody 
Academy 'of  Science  with  good  results.  A  thin  strip  of  rub- 
ber packing  is  folded  and  fastened  by  means  of  a  strip  of 
wood  to  the  case  and  against  this  fold  the  door  closes  sending 

the  joint  all  but  air- 
tight. The  construc- 
tion is  readily  seen  from 
figure  23.  The  floor  of 
a  vertical  case  should 
be  some  few  inches 
above  the  floor  of  the 
exhibition  room,  and  the  space 
thus  left  may  be  occupied  by 
drawers  for  the  storage  of  speci- 
mens. The  shelves  in  an  upright 
case  should  be  adjustable  to  any 
desired  height.  A  perfect  method 
of  accomplishing  this  yet  remains  to  be  invented.  Sometimes 
sticks  fitting  into  ratchets  on  which  the  shelves  are  supported 
are  employed,  others  support  the  shelves  on  "screw  eyes" 
screwed  into  the  frame  of  the  case.  But  doubtless  the  best 
apparatus  is  the  adjustable  brackets.  Two  patterns  of  these 
are  made,  one  by  Mr.  Jenks  and  one  by  Mr.  Gavitt,  each 
having  its  merits  and  objections.  Possibly  the  former  is 
preferable.  Each  of  these  employs  an  iron  bracket  (hori- 
-cntal  or  inclined  as  may  be  desired)  which  hooks  into  an 


FIG.  23. 


CASES. 


iron  frame  and  can  be  raised  or  lowered  as  circumstances  de- 
mand, by  simply  unhooking  and  placing  in  another  hole. 
These  bracket  irons  should  never  be  affixed  to  the  wall  of  the 
case  but  to  a  post  inserted  especially  for  the  purpose. 

Upright  cases  are  necessary  for  alcoholic  specimens  and 
mounted  mammals  and  birds  ;  all  other  forms,  with  a  very  few 
exceptions  are  better  displayed  in  horizontal  or  table  cases. 
In  the  construction  of  these  the  same  care  to  make  the  cases 
tight  should  be  used  as  in 
vertical  cases,  and  the 
same  methods,  with  slight 
modification,  may  be  used. 
The  manner  of  applying 
the  rubber  strip  is  shown 
in  fig.  24.  It  is  best  to 
make  the  case  deep 
enough  to  accommodate 
any  specimen  that  may  be 
obtained,  and  then  to  have 
a  false  bottom  which  by 
blocking  up  will  bring  the 
contents  as  near  the  glass  as  is  desired.  It  is  sometimes 
convenient  to  have  upright  cases  in  connection  with  the 
horizontal  and  at  such  times  the  form  shown  in  fig.  25 
possesses  advantages.  Horizontal  cases  may  be  clear  un- 
derneath, or  they  may  be  fitted  with  glass  for  the  exhibition 
of  large  specimens,  or  with  drawers.  Specimens  placed  in 
such  position  cannot  be  seen  to  advantage ;  while  drawers 
afford  a  large  amount  of  storage  room  and  hence  in  most 
instances  are  preferable- 


FlG.   24. 


72  NATURALISTS'    ASSISTANT. 

Insects  are  placed  on  exhibition  in  trays  which  are  placed 
in  horizontal  cases.  These  trays  are  made  of  light  wood  and 
should  be  about  ten  by  twelve  inches  by  two  deep.  The 
bottom  should  be  lined  with  sheet  cork,  which  may  be 
procured  of  any  dealer  in  Naturalists'  supplies,  and  over  this 
should  be  stretched  paper  so  that  the  whole  will  present  a 
neat  appearance.  Prof.  E.  S.  Morse  has  described  in  the 


FIG.  25. 

pages  of  the  American  Naturalist  a  convenient  substitute  for 
cork  in  the  bottoms  of  cases.  A  rectangular  frame  of  light 
wood  strips  of  such  a  size  as  to  be  readily  admitted  into  the 
tray  has  stretched  upon  it  sheets  of  paper,  one  above  and  one 
below.  The  paper  may  be  readily  stretched  by  thoroughly 
wetting  it  and  while  wet  gluing  it  to  the  frame.  Thus,  when 
dry  it  is  as  tight  as  a  drum-head.  This  papered  frame  should 
be  supported  about  an  eighth  of  an  inch  above  the  bottom 


CASES. 


73 


of  the  case.  The  pin  bearing  the  insect  is  passed  through 
both  sheets  of  paper  until  its  point  penetrates  the  wood. 
Thus  three  points  of  support  are  obtained.  Other  substitutes 
for  cork  have  been  proposed,  corn  stalks  elder  pith  pita,  etc., 
but  their  use  is  attended  with  this  disadvantage,  that  the  sap 
which  they  contain  produces  by  fermentation  an  acid  which 
Corrodes  a  pin. ' 
Storage  cases  for  insects  are  usually  made  in  pairs,  and 


FIG.  26. 

should  have   the  two  parts  fitted  together  by  tongue  and 
groove.     This  will  be  very  effectual  in  excluding  vermin. 

A  large  proportion  of  the  alcoholic  specimens  of  any  col- 
lection will  be  kept  in  what  are  known  as  homoeopathic  vials 
and  various  ways  for  arranging  and  keeping  these  have  been 
devised.  The  common  method  is  by  laying  them  down  in 
shallow  drawers,  but  this  has  the  disadvantage  of  injuring  the 
cork  by  keeping  it  constantly  soaked  with  alcohol.  Mr. 
Emerton  has  suggested  a  handy  form  which  is  well  adapted 


74 


NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 


for  laboratory  purposes.  Its  construction  is  readily  seen  from 
fig.  27.  It  consists  of  a  shallow  tray  with  a  series  of  steps, 
the  bottles  being  held  in  place  by  rods  running  along  the  case. 
When  a  row  is  not  full,  the  vials  are  fastened  by  a  wedge. 


\ 


V 


J 


\\\\\\ 

y\->^A-^ — *^-s 


FIG.  27. 


This  form  may  stand  on  the  laboratory  table  or  can  hang 
against  the  wall  as  desired.  They  can  also  be  hinged  to- 
gether in  pairs,  labelled  and  placed  on  shelves. 


CASES. 


75 


Perhaps  the  best  form  of  case  for  homeopathic  vials  is  that 
described  by  the  same  gentleman  in  the  American  Natura- 
list. Narrow  deep  drawers  are  made  with  the  front,  bottom, 
back  and  one  side  of  wood  while  the  other  side  consists  of 
two  wires.  This  holds  the  bottles  in  an  upright  position  and 
also  admits  an  easy  examination  of  the  contents.  These 
drawers  may  be  m  .de  of  varying  width  but  in  no  case  should 
the  front  be  less  than  an  inch  across.  This  is  none  too  wide 
for  the  smallest  vials.  By  making  the  drawers  wider,  larger 


FIG.  28. 

vials  (one  and  two  oz.  can  be  admitted.  The  drawers  may 
advantageously  be  four  and  one-half  inches  in  depth  and  twelve 
inches  in  length.  The  bottles  are  fastened  i.i  position  with  a 
wedge  as  shown  in  fij.  28.  These  drawers  may  be  placed 
together  in  a  cabinet  (fig.  29)  and  are  interchangeable.  By 
this  means  any  desired  arrangement  of  the  collections  can'  be 
effected,  new  specimens  can  be  interpolated  at  any  time  and 
by  having  the  drawers  labelled  any  desired  specimen  can  be 
at  once  found. 

Microscopic  slides  also  require  special  cases.     Of  these 


NATURALISTS     ASSISTANT. 


there  are  primarily  two  forms,  those  in  which  the  specimens 
lie  flat  and  those  in  which  they  stand  on  an  edge.     The  for- 


mer are  preferable  from  the  reason  that  the  "mount"  is  less 
liable  to  slip.     On  the  other  hand  they  take  up  much  more 


CASES.  77 

room.  The  specimens  may  be  kept  flat  in  drawers  sliding  in 
a  frame  or  in  trays  piled  one  on  another  and  enclosed  in  a 
li^ht  box ;  the  former  is  the  most  convenient,  the  latter  the 
more  compact. 

When  slides  stand  on  their  edges  they  are  supported  in  the 
box  by  strips  of  wood  in  which  transverse  grooves  are  cut 
with  a  saw.  In  a  box  of  this  character  many  slides  may  be 
packed  in  a  small  compass.  Another  method  which  has  been 
proposed  is  to  take  the  frame  of  an  ordinary  school  slate  and 
replace  the'  stone  with  pasteboard.  Rubber  cord  is  then  sewed 
through  the  pasteboard  forming  clips  which  support  the  slides. 
Several  of  the  frames  are  bound  together  in  book  form  and 
placed  on  the  shelves. 

The  forms  of  cases  above  described  will  answer  in  the 
majority  of  instances,  but  occasionally  circumstances  will  de- 
mand something  different.  No  rules  can  be  laid  down  to 
cover  every  condition  which  may  arise ;  a  use  of  common 
sense  and  ingenuity  will  solve  most  difficulties. 


THE  MICROSCOPE, 


CHAPTER  IV. 


THE   MICROSCOPE. 


To  the  student  of  Nature  the  microscope  is  indispensable  ; 
he  requires  it  to  obtain  an  enlarged  view  of  the  objects  he 
studies.  The  simplest  form  of  microscope  is  a  piece  of  glass 
with  one  or  both  sides  convex,  and  known  as  a  lens.  These 


FIG.  30. 

simple  lenses  are  very  cheap  and  still  very  handy.     It  is  some- 
times desirable  to  have  two  or  three  so  mounted  that  either 
one  or  more  may  be  used,  as  occasion  demands  a  greater  or 
6  (81) 


82 


NATURALISTS     ASSISTANT. 


less  amount  of  amplification.  This  is  frequently  obtained  by 
an  arrangement  similar  to  that  shown  in  fig.  30.  For  very 
low  powers  it  is  convenient  to  have  the  style  of  mounting 
used  by  watchmakers  as  this  can  readily  be  held  by  the 
muscles  around  the  eye,  leaving  both  hands  free  for  wcrk. 

With  the  simple  lens  there  are,  however,  disadvantages  ;  as, 
when  a  clear  view  is  obtained  of  the  centre,  objects  at  the 
margin  of  the  field  are  blurred  and  surrounded  by  rainbow 
hues. 

Various  plans  have  been  adopted  to  avoid  these  defects 


FIG.  31. 


FIG.  32. 


(known  as  spherical  and  chromatic  aberration),  the  simplest 
is  that  of  the  Coddington  lens  (fig.  31)  in  which  the  glass 
has  a  deep  groove  cut  around  the  margin  which  is  filled  with 
some  black  pigment  leaving  only  a  small  opening  in  the 
centre.  This  to  a  considerable  extent  does  away  with  the 
color  and  distortion  but  at  the  expense  of  the  brilliancy  of 
the  view  obtained. 

Another,  and  the  better,  method  of  avoiding  aberration  is 
by  having  the  lens  made  of  different  kinds  of  glass,  which 
produce  different  effects  on  light  and  which  tend  to  balance 
each  other.  These  lenses  are  sold  under  the  names  of 


THE    MICROSCOPE.  83 

"doublets"  (two  pieces  of  glass),  "triplets'"  (three  pieces), 
"platyscopic  lenses,"  etc.  A  section  of  a  triplet  is  shown 
in  fig.  32.  A  good  triplet  gives  a  perfectly  flat  field  and  is 
free  from  rainbow  hues  around  the  object  viewed. 

Some  means  of  support  should  be  devised  to  hold  the 
simple  lens.  A  very  simple  one  may  be  made  by  means  of 
a  block  of  wood,  two  bits  of  stiff  iron  wire,  and  a  couple  of 
corks.  The  block  of  wood  should  be  used  as  a  base.  In 
its  centre  one  of  the  pieces  of  wire  should  be  fixed  in  an  up- 
right position.  On  this  wire  one  of  the  corks  should  be 


FIG.  33- 

made  to  slide  up  and  down  freely,  but  not  so  loosely  as  to 
slip.  Through  this  cork  the  second  rod  should  move  with 
the  same  freedom  as  the  first,  but  at  right  angles ;  and  at  its 
farther  extremity,  the  second  cork,  which  is  shaped  to  hold 
the  lens,  should  be  fixed.  The  corks  used  in  this  way  afford 
a  very  smooth  motion  and  the  apparatus  produces  good 
results. 

A  rather  more  expensive  piece  of  apparatus  for  this  pur- 
pose is  that  shown  in  fig.  33,  and  which  hardly  needs  any 
explanation.  The  whole  is  made  of  brass  and  is  especially 
adapted  for  the  usual  style  of  mounting  triplets.  The  two 


84  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

joints  of  the  apparatus  enable  a  person  to  raise  and  depress 
the  lens  and  still  keep  it  horizontal.  The  end  portion  con- 
sists of  a  piece  of  brass  tube  with  a  slot  cut  in  it  to  receive 
the  cover  of  the  lens.  Such  an  instrument  can  be  made  for 
two  dollars  at  the  most,  and  to  all  intents  and  purposes  will 
serve  instead  of  a  dissecting  microscope,  all  forms  of  which  are 
more  or  less  inconvenient.  When  it  is  desirable  to  use  trans- 
mitted light,  the  watch  glass  or  other  transparent  dish  may  be 
placed  in  the  mouth  of  a  bottle  and  thus  sufficient  light  for 
all  ordinary  purposes  can  be  obtained. 

Dissecting  microscopes  are  advertised  by  all  dealers  in 
microscopic  goods,  but  they  are  but  little  used  by  professional 
naturalists,  a  triplet  with  a  stand  answering  all  their  purposes 
and  that  with  few  of  the  many  objections  which  they  all 
have. 

The  compound  microscope  is  next  to  be  considered.  In 
this  instrument  an  inverted  image  is  formed  by  the  lens 
(or  combination  of  lenses)  nearest  the  object  (called  the 
object  glass)  and  viewed  by  the  other  lens  nearer  the  eye 
(the  eye-piece  or  ocular).  These  lenses  are  mounted  in  a 
tube  fitted  with  appliances  for  bringing  them  nearer  to  or  re- 
moving them  farther  from  an  object  placed  on  the  stage. 
Suitable  methods  are  also  employed  for  illuminating  the  ob- 
ject, and  a  stand  to  support  the  whole  completes  the  list  of 
necessary  portions.  These  will  now  be  taken  up  in  order  and 
their  various  requisites  discussed.  In  this  the  writer  is  well 
aware  that  the  views  advanced  are  in  direct  opposition  to 
those  held  by  many  microscopists,  but  he  is  also  aware  that 
they  are  in  almost  full  accord  with  the  opinions  of  those  who 


THE    MICROSCOPE.  85 

use  the  instrument  as  a  means  of  research  and  not  as  a  play- 
thing. 

First  and  foremost,  the  simpler  the  working  parts  are,  the 
better.  Complication  means  a  waste  of  time  with  no  corre- 
sponding gain.  When  a  microscope  becomes  a  mass  of 
machinery  with  screws,  wheels,  pinions  and  a  thousand  and 
one  appliances,  its  sphere  of  usefulness  is  gone. 

The  tube  of  the  microscope  should  be  short  and,  if  the 
owner  has  money  for  objectives,  a  draw  tube  and  an  ampli- 
fier are  utterly  useless.  The  use  of  a  draw  tube  is  to  increase 
the  length  of  the  tube  of  the  microscope  and  thus  enlarge 
the  image  formed  by  the  objective,  but  it  must  be  at  once 
evident  that  the  increased  size  of  the  image  is  counterbal- 
anced by  a  corresponding  loss  in  distinctness  and  brilliancy. 
But  few  objectives  are  made  which  will  stand  the  strain  of 
the  higher  oculars  and  a  draw  tube.  The  continental  workers 
adopt  the  other  method  of  using  objectives  of  greater  mag- 
nifying power  to  obtain  the  desired  amplification  and  it  is  only 
necessary  to  refer  to  their  published  figures  to  show  the 
great  superiority  of  their  method.  The  writer  would  there- 
fore advise  instruments  with  short  tubes,  the  amplification  of 
the  image  to  depend  on  the  objective. 

There  should  be  two  methods  of  regulating  the  distance 
between  the  objective  and  the  object :  one  by  which  it  can 
be  rapidly  increased  or  diminished,  while  the  other  works  at 
a  greatly  lower  rate  of  speed  and  thus  is  suitable  for  small 
distances.  These  are  called  respectively  the  coarse  and  fine 
adjustments.  There  have  been  many  plans  for  regulating  the 
coarse  adjustment,  but  two,  however,  having  any  extensive 


86  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

application  :  by  sliding  tube,  and  by  rack  and  pinion.  For 
the  novi:e  the  latter  is  the  better  method  but  in  the  hands 
of  the  experienced  person  equally  good  results  are  readily 
obtained  by  the  former  plan.  With  the  sliding  tube,  the  tube 
carrying  the  lenses  is  made  to  slide  in  a  closely  fitting  collar 
by  a  screwing  motion.  The  rack  and  pinion  dispense  with 
the  collar  and  move  the  tube  by  a  toothed  wheel,  working 
into  a  straight  bar  fitted  with  similar  teeth.  The  great  ob- 
jection to  this  is  that  the  teeth  wear  rapidly,  thus  allowing 
more  or  less  "play"  and  causing  the  tube  to  move  by  jerks, 
a  serious  disadvantage. 

The  methods  employed  for  securing  the  fine  adjustment 
are  still  more  numerous.  Some  move  the  "nose  piece" 
(/'.  <?.,.  move  the  objective  without  altering  the  position  of  the 
tube)  ;  others  move  the  tube,  and  still  others  move  the  stage. 
These  last  forms  are  the  worst  of  all  and  should  never  be  em- 
ployed. Between  the  other  two  and  the  various  methods 
employed  for  each,  there  is  but  little  choice  when  well  made. 
The  purchaser  should,  however,  -always  see  that  the  fine  ad- 
justment works  easily,  responds  to  the  slightest  turn  of  the 
adjusting  screw,  is  durable,  and  can  be  regulated  for  very 
short  distances.  If  proper  precautions  are  taken  by  the  maker 
to  secure  an  absolutely  straight  motion  without  any  lateral  de- 
viation cr  shake,  it  is  perhaps  best  to  have  the  whole  tube 
move  by  the  fine  adjustment,  rather  than  the  objective  alone. 

The  lenses  are  the  important  portion  of  the  instrument 
and  upon  their  perfection  its  value  almost  entirely  depends. 
The  eye-piece  may  either  consist  of  two  or  three  lenses 
mounted  in  a  short  tube  (Huygenian  oculars) ,  or  the  lenses 


THE    MICROSCOPE.  87 

may  be  united  into  one,  forming  the  solid  eye-piece.  The 
latter  is  the  better  and  is  at  the  same  time  more  expensive 
form.  It  is  best  to  have  two  eye-pieces  (those  lettered  A  and 
C  by  most  American  manufacturers  being  the  most  useful). 
The  greatest  attention  should  be  paid  to  the  selection  of  the 
objectives  and,  unless  the  purchaser  be  an  experienced  per- 
son, some  expert  friend  should, be  called  in  to  pass  judgment 
upon  the  lenses  submitted.  The  great  points  to  be  secured 
are  absence  of  color,  flatness  of  field,  and  distinctness  of 
image.  All  objectives  above  a  one-fourth  should  be  provided 
with  an  adjustment  for  cover  glass.  The  "  angle  of  aperture  " 
should  be  reasonably  large,  but  "high  angled"  lenses  possess 
no  value  corresponding  to  their  high  price  except  to  "Diato- 
maniacs." 

Objectives  are  rated  by  English  and  American  manufacturers 
according  to  their  focal  length,  this  being  the  distance  be- 
tween the  object  and  the  "optical  centre"  of  the  lens  when 
an  image  is  formed.  Thus  a  £  inch  does  not  have  a  quarter 
of  an  inch  between  the  objective  and  the  object,  but  between 
the  optical  centre  (which  is  nearer  the  distal  portion  of  the 
lens  than  is  the  mathematical  centre)  and  the  object. 

For  the  beginner,  the  most  useful  objectives  will  be  an 
inch  and  a  quarter  or  fifth.  As  he  proceeds  in  his  studies  and 
his  familiarity  with  the  instrument  increases,  higher,  lower, 
and  intermediate  powers  will  be  necessary. 

Among  the  higher  powers  (£  inch  and  upward)  it  is  cus- 
tomary to  have  the  lenses  of  the  kind  known  as  "immersion." 
In  these  the  end  of  the  objective  is  wetted  with  a  drop  of 
water  which  forms  a  thin  film  between  the  cover  of  the  slide 


88  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

and  the  lens.  It  is  thus  possible  to  obtain  a  more  brilliant 
view  of  the  object  as  a  larger  amount  of  light  can  be  passed 
through  the  objective.  Besides  this  there  are  other  immersion 
lenses,  etc.,  in  which  oil,  etc.,  take  the  place  of  the  water. 

It  may  not  come  amiss  to  say  that  the  objectives  of  dif- 
ferent makers,  of  the  same  nominal  focal  length,  vary  greatly 
in  their  magnifying  power.  JThis  results  from  the  fact  that 
some  manufacturers,  in  plain  English,  lie  about  their  lenses 
and  sell  for  a  fourth,  for  instance,  a  lens  which  in  reality  is  a 
sixth  or  an  eighth,  and  thus  obtain  a  reputation  for  making 
lenses  of  wonderful  power,  while  were  their  work  tested  upon 
its  true  merits  its  rank  would  be  much  less.  One  prominent 
American  manufacturer  notoriously  does  this  and  upon  just 
this  fraud  has  acquired  a  great  reputation. 

Continental  manufacturers  have  adopted  an  arbitrary  sys- 
tem of  numbering  their  objectives,  and,  for  the  convenience 
of  many,  the  tables  on  the  opposite  page  giving  the  equiva- 
lent of  each  in  inches  are  inserted. 

Other  prominent  European,  as  well  as  the  English  and 
American  makers  designate  their  objectives  by  their  focal 
length.  The  objectives  of  the  Continental  manufacturers  are 
fully  equal  for  work  to  those  of  English  or  American  opticians 
while  their  prices  are  greatly  lower,  and  the  writer  would 
here  advise  every  one  to  buy  the  objectives  of  Hartnack  or 
Zeiss,  until  American  manufacturers  offer  their  work  at 
reasonable  prices. 

The  stage  of  the  microscope  should  be  firm  and  rigid.  It 
is  frequently  convenient  to  have  a  stage  of  glass  sliding  upon 
brass  supports,  as  thus  a  great  smoothness  of  motion  is  ob- 


THE   MICROSCOPE. 


HARTNACK. 

No.      Focal  length. 

ZEISS. 
No.  Focal  length. 

SCHIEK. 
No.  Focal  length 

NACHET. 
No.  Focal  length. 

1 

2 

A             1 

1              2 

0 

2 

2 

1 

A               I 

2             8 

1 

1 

3 

1 

B               f 

3               | 

2 

i 

2 

4 

I 

c          i 

4                        4 

3 

1 
4 

5 

i 

4 

D              ti 

5              i 

4 

| 

6 

5 

E              i 

6              i 

5 

t 

7 

6 

F              TV 

7              £ 

6 

A 

8 

i 

8              * 

7 

A 

9 

-rV 

91 
12 

8 

A 

101 

A 

10          A 

9 

A 

11 

Y« 

11           A- 

10 

tV 

12 

-A- 

11 

iV 

13 

is 

12 

llff 

14 

-h 

15 

-J- 

16 

-i0- 

17 

-45 

18 

A' 

tained.  On  the  other  hand,  the  glass  stage  is  as  frequently  in 
the  way,  and  on  the  whole  the  student  can  very  well  dispense 
with  it,  as  its  disadvantages  will  nearly  or  quite  counterbalance 
its  convenience.  No  rubber  should  be  employed  around  the 
stage  nor  in  fact  anywhere  around  the  microscope.2  The 

1  Nos.  TO  to  1 8  are  immersion. 

2  Besides  its   electrical  qualities  which  render  it  a  nuisance,  rubber  is  readily 
affected  by  turpentine  and  benzole  which  are  so  necessary  in  microscopic  work. 


90  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

under  side  of  the  stage  should  be  bevelled  around  the  central 
opening  to  admit  of  oblique  illumination,  and  it  is  often  con- 
venient to  have  a  thread  cut  in  the  opening  itself  to  admit  of 
using  objectives  as  "  condensers  "  in  using  high  powers.  The 
stage  should  also  be  provided  with  clips  to  hold  the  slide  in 
any  desired  position.  Stage  forceps  are  more  bother  than 
they  are  worth. 

The  illumination  of  the  object  is  accomplished  by  a  mirror 
and  by  a  "bulls  eye"  ;  the  mirror  is  supported  beneath  the 
stage  and  should  be  so  arranged  as  to  be  readily  placed  at 
different  distances  from  the  object  and  also  so  that  the  light 
can  be  thrown  at  various  angles  upon  the  slide.  Two  mirrors, 
one  plain  and  the  other  concave,  are  usually  furnished  so 
that  varying  intensities  of  light  may  be  employed.  With  high 
powers  a  lens  is  frequently  employed  to  add  to  the  illumina- 
tion and  is  interposed  between  the  mirror  and  the  stage. 
This  is  called  a  condenser.  Some  microscopes  have  the 
mirror  so  arranged  as  to  swing  above  the  stage  and  thus 
illuminate  opaque  objects ;  in  others  this  illumination  is  ef- 
fected by  the  "bulls  eye"  a  large  lens  of  common  glass 
mounted  on  a  separate  standard. 

It  is  usual  to  have  some  method  of  cutting  off  undesired 
rays  of  light  coming  from  the  mirror.  This  is  accomplished 
by  having  apertures  of  various  sizes  so  arranged  that  they 
may  be  brought  beneath  the  object.  Various  methods  are 
adopted  to  accomplish  this  but  it  is  difficult  to  say  which  is 
best.  The  microscope  as  described  with  its  base,  its  supports, 
and  its  means  of  connection  of  the  various  parts  form  what  is 
known  as  the  "stand, "  and  this  will  now  be  considered. 


THE   MICROSCOPE.  9! 

The  stand  should  be  solid  and  firm,  without  springiness  or 
"give"  in  its  various  parts.  The  base  should  be  heavy  so  as 
to  prevent  its  easy  overthrow.  It  is  frequently  convenient  to 
have  the  instrument  so  arranged  that  it  may  be  inclined  ;  but 
if  an  instrument  with  short  tube  and  low  body  be  procured 
and  fitted  with  a  camera  admitting  of  use  in  a  vertical  posi- 
tion, inclination  is  rarely  necessary. 

The  accessories  which  are  necessary  for  the  biologist  are  ex- 
tremely few.  First  among  them  comes  the  camera  lucida  or 
other  means  of  seeing  the  object  and  the  point  of  the  pencil 
at  the  same  time.  The  simplest  form  consists  of  a  bit  of 
thin  glass  so  mounted  near  the  eye-piece  of  the  microscope 
that  the  eye  can  see  the  point  of  the  pencil  through  it,  and  at 
the  same  time  the  image  coming  through  the  eye-piece  is  re- 
flected by  it  to  the  eye.  In  other  forms  prisms  of  various 
shapes  replace  the  thin  glass,  or  a  very  small  metallic  mirror 
is  employed.  A  prism  properly  mounted  forms  the  most  satis- 
factory camera. 

Occasionally,  in  differentiating  certain  structures  in  the 
living  animal,  a  polariscope  is  useful.  This  consists  of  two 
prisms  of  Iceland  spar  properly  prepared  and  placed,  the  one 
below  the  object  and  between  it  and  the  mirror,  the  other, 
either  in  connection  with  the  objective  or  the  eye-piece,  be- 
tween the  object  and  the  eye.  When  either  of  these  is 
revolved  around  the  axis  of  the  instrument,  many  structures 
are  seen  to  present  different  colors  which  vary  as  do  the  rel- 
ative positions  of  the  two  prisms. 

Other  accessories  such  as  mechanical  stages,  spot  lenses, 


92  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

Lieberkuhns,  parabolas,  etc.,  etc.,  are  but  rarely  used  by  the 
true  student  and  need  not  be  described  here. 

This  is  a  good  place  to  say  a  word  about  the  "Novelty," 
"  Globe,"  "Craig,"  and  other  microscopes  which  are  extensive- 
ly advertised  and  as  extensively  recommended  by  clergymen, 
teachers,  and  others.  These  microscopes,  furnished  for  twen- 
ty-five cents,  are  said  to  magnify  10,000  times,  to  show 
animalcules  in  water  and  various  other  wonderful  things,  but 
they  are  merely  catch-pennies,  and  the  clergy  who  recommend 
such  worthless  instruments  are  entering  a  field  in  which  they 
are  perfect  ignoramuses.  These  cheap  microscopes  are 
poorly  made,  give  distorted  and  misleading  images,  and  in  a 
word  are  worse  than  useless.  The  Craig  is  perhaps  the  worst 
of  the  lot. 

DIFFERENT   FORMS   OF  MICROSCOPES. 

From  the  days  of  Adams,  Baker,  Trembley,  and  the  older 
investigators,  microscopes  have  been  used  extensively  by 
naturalists,  and  of  course  in  these  years  various  styles  of  in- 
struments have  originated,  but  all  forms  now  manufactured 
may  be  roughly  classified  under  two  heads,  the  English  and 
the  Continental  patterns.  The  latter  are  almost  always 
small,  of  great  simplicity,  and  those  of  the  prominent 
makers  like  Zeiss,  Hartnack,  Merz,  or  Nachet,  are  invariably 
of  good  workmanship.  These  have  either  a  circular  or  horse- 
shoe base  from  which  arises  the  support  of  the  working  por- 
tions of  the  instrument.  The  stage  is  almost  invariably  of 


THE   MICROSCOPE.  93 

brass,  without  glass  or  mechanical  attachments.  The  tube  is 
usually  supported  by  an  arm  or  bar  and  the  coarse  adjustment 
is  effected  by  means  of  a  sliding  tube.  The  fine  adjustment 
on  all  foreign  instruments  which  the  author  has  seen  has  in- 
variably been  well  made  and  moves  the  arm  and  with  it  the 
tube.  The  English  model  is  larger  and  much  more  compli- 
cated and  clumsy.  The  base  is  usually  of  the  tripod  form 
and  the  uprights  supporting  the  working  parts  are  much  taller 
than  is  necessary.  In  the  higher  priced  instruments  the 
stage  usually  bears  a  plate  of  glass  which  in  turn  supports 
the  object.  This  glass  stage,  theoretically,  is  a  great  conven- 
ience as  it  affords  a  very  smooth  motion  and  preserves  the 
working  parts  from  corrosive  liquids ;  but  in  practice  it  is  a 
great  nuisance  and  can  well  be  dispensed  with.  The  stage 
in  most  of  the  English  models  is  larger  than  in  the  continen- 
tal and  in  this  respect  is  better.  The  tube  is  generally  sup- 
ported by  a  curved  arm  and  the  coarse  adjustment  effected 
by  rack  and  pinion.  The  fine  adjustment  indifferently  moves 
either  the  whole  tube  or  just  the  nose-piece,  many  manufac- 
turers making  both  styles.  The  tube  itself  is  almost  always 
unnecessarily  long  and  this  defect  is  increased  by  a  draw 
tube.  When  English  and  American  students  learn  that  defi- 
nition is  better  than  amplification,  and  that  the  shorter  an 
instrument  is,  the  better  and  more  useful  it  is,  then,  and  not 
till  then,  may  we  hope  for  a  change  for  the  better  in  this  re- 
spect. It  may  seem  out  of  place  in  a  work  of  this  character 
to  speak  of  one  instrument  in  higher  terms  than  of  another, 
but  there  are  many  who  wish  to  purchase  microscopes  who 


94  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

have  not  had  the  necessary  experience  to  select  for  them- 
selves, hence  the  following  words  are  written,  and  must 
not  in  any  way  be  considered  as  an  advertisement,  except 
such  as  the  merit  of  the  various  instruments  themselves 
demands. 

In  the  writer's  opinion,  one  of  the  best  stands  for  all 
ordinary  work  is  the  smaller  compjund  microscope  manu- 
factured by  Carl  Zeiss  of  Jena  and  designated  by  him  as 
"Va."  This  stand  alone  costs  ninety  marks  ($22.50)  and 
when  furnished  with  four  eye-pieces  and  three  objectives, 
A,  C,  D,  F,  giving  powers  of  20-1500  diameters,  sells  for 
three  hundred  and  twenty  marks  ($80.00).  This  instrument 
will  answer  all  the  requirements  of  the  naturalist  or  histologist 
in  any  special  investigation.  The  ordinary  student,  however, 
does  not  need  these  higher  powers,  and  the  same  stand  with 
three  eye-pieces  and  the  objectives  "A"  and  "D"  (i  inch 
and  I)  will  answer  all  ordinary  requirements  and  is  sold 
for  one  hundred  and  seventy  marks  (about  $42.50).  Zeiss's 
American  agent  is  F.  J.  Emmerich,  138  Fulton  St.,  New 
York,  who  imports,  charging  50  per  cent,  to  cover  freights 
and  duties. 

The  instruments  of  Hartnack  are  fully  equal  in  value  to 
those  of  Zeiss  and  the  differences  in  price  are  very  slight. 
Geo.  A.  Smith  &  Co.,  149  A  Tremont  St.,  Boston,  are  the 
American  agents  of  Hartnack,  or  rather,  of  his  successor, 
Prazmowski,  and  furnish  his  instruments  at  very  reasonable 
prices.  The  stand  III  a  with  two  eye-pieces,  and  objectives 
4  and  7,  giving  powers  from  50  to  450  diameters,  is  sold  for 


THE   MICROSCOPE. 


95 


$50.00 ;  with  the  addition  of  objective  No.  9,  the  price  is 
$70.00.  No  better  instrument  for  actual  work  can  be  bought. 

When  we  come  to  speak  of  the  comparative  merits  of  the 
instruments  manufactured  or  extensively  sold  in  America, 
it  is  a  rather  more  delicate  matter  to  decide  between  them, 
though  no  corresponding  difficulty  exists.  Beyond  all  doubt 
the  best  stand  for  the  student  is  the  American  Histological 
stand  manufactured  by  J.  Zentmayer,  of  Philadelphia,  and 
with  an  T8-y  and  a  ±  objective  is  sold  for  $50.00.  Those  who 
prefer  a  ragk  and  pinion  can  obtain  from  this  maker  essen- 
tially the  same  instrument  with  this  addition  ;  the  same  stand 
for  $58.00.  Were  the  stages  of  these  instruments  an  inch 
lower  and  an  inch  larger,  as  they  could  readily  be  made,  they 
would  be  much  more  convenient. 

R.  and  J.  Beck,  of  Philadelphia,  make  an  excellent  instru- 
ment, the  "  Economic  "(No.  263),  which  with  two  objectives 
(i  in.  and  ]  in.)  they  sell  for  $40.00.  The  same  with  rack  and 
pinion  and  two  eye-pieces  (No.  264)  is  advertised  for  $55.00. 

Bausch  and  Lomb,  of  Rochester, make  the  "Physicians'" 
microscope,  of  fair  workmanship,  which  with  two  eye-pieces 
and  two  objectives,  £  and  £  (No.  550),  brings  $60.00.  Their 
instruments,  however,  would  be  much  better  did  they  avoid 
the  use  of  rubber  in  their  construction. 

The  instruments  and  objectives  of  Tolles,  of  Boston,  possess 
no  advantages  at  all  commensurate  with  the  greatly  exorbitant 
prices  charged  for  them. 

In  case  the  student  desires  higher  powers  than  those  enum- 
erated with  the  foregoing  instruments,  it  will  be  for  his  advan- 


96 

tage  to  import  the  lenses  of  either  Hartnack  or  Zeiss  and 
have  them  fitted  by  an  " adapter"  to  his  microscope.  By 
this  method,  he  will  obtain  good  objectives  at  about  half  the 
prices  charged  for  similar  lenses  of  no  better  quality  made 
by  American  opticians. 

Binocular  microscopes  have  of  late  been  extensively  ad- 
vertised, but  for  work  possess  not  the  slightest  advantage  and 
are  only  manufactured  so  that  the  makers  may  add  to  the 
prices  and  to  the  profits  made  on  their  instruments. 


THE   USE   AND    CARE   OF   THE   MICROSCOPE. 

It  is  a  difficult  task  to  give  directions  for  the  use  of  the 
microscope  as  the  varying  uses  to  which  it  is  put  require  as 
varied  a  method  of  handling.  All  objects  for  the  micro- 
scope should  be  mounted  either  temporarily  or  permanently 
on  a  glass  slide.  If  it  be  a  moist  tissue  or  an  object  taken 
from  the  water,  a  drop  of  water  should  be  placed  on  the 
slide,  the  object  placed  in  it  and  the  whole  covered  with  a 
piece  of  thin  glass.  The  slide  and  its  object  are  now  ready 
for  examination.  The  microscope  should  now  be  made  ready 
and  the  objectives  screwed  on.  It  is  best  to  use  first  the 
lower  powers  and  then  the  higher  if  necessary,  with  either 
reflected  or  transmitted  light  according  as  the  object  is 
opaque  or  transparent.  There  are  several  advantages  con- 
nected with  this  method  of  treatment,  one  being  that  in  this 
way  a  general  idea  of  the  structure  is  first  obtained  and  the 
various  details  are  studied  afterward.  It  is  also  much  easier 


THE  MICROSCOPE.  97 

to  find  an  object  under  a  low  power,  and,  placing  it  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  field,  it  is  in  position  when  the  higher  powers  are 
employed. 

In  focussing  the  microscope  it  is  better  first  to  run  the  tube 
down  toward  the  slide  to  within  the  focal  limits  of  the  objec- 
tive, watching  the  operation  from  the  side  and  seeing  that 
the  cover  glass  is  not  touched.  Then,  with  the  eye  to  the 
eye-piece  of  the  microscope,  the  tube  is  slowly  moved  back 
by  the  coarse  adjustment  until  a  good  view  of  the  object  is 
obtained,  and  then  the  fine  adjustment  is  used. 

In  using  immersion  objectives  a  drop  of  water  is  put  on 
the  front  of  the  objective  which  is  then  placed  on  the  mi- 
croscope and  run  down  to  the  cover  glass  so  that  the  water 
forms  a  thin  film  between  the  objective  and  the  cover  glass. 
A  very  simple  experiment,  for  v/hich  I  am  indebted  to  Mr. 
Phin,3  shows  how  the  immersion  aids  in  the  defining  power 
of  the  microscope.  "Take  four  ordinary  plate  glass  slides 
and  place  a  very  small  drop  of  water  in  the  centre  of  three 
of  them.  Across  the  ends  of  these  three  slides  lay  a  narrow 
strip  of  stout  writing  paper,  and  then  place  the  four  slides 
together  so  that  between  every  two  there  shall  be  a  drop  of 
water  and  also  two  slips  of  paper  to  keep  them  apart.  If 
you  now  look  through  these  four  slides  at  any  object,  the 
spots  where  the  three  drops  of  water  have  been  placed  will 
look  like  a  hole  it  will  appear  so  clean  and  transparent." 
The  water  produces  exactly  the  same  effect  with  the  immer- 


•  Practical  Hints  on  the  Selection  and  Use  of  the  Microscope,  p.  38,  by  John 
Pbin,N.Y.,i875. 
7 


98  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

sion  objective.  Most  objectives  use  water  for  an  immersing 
medium  but  some  are  adapted  for  oil  of  cedar,  glycerine  or 
other  liquid.  Immersion  objectives  are  valuable  for  some 
special  purposes,  but  for  ordinary  work  the  "dry"  lenses  are 
much  better. 

Most  high  powers  of  American  objectives  have  an  adjust- 
ment for  thickness  of  cover  glass.    This  is  only  necessary  for 
objectives  of  very  high  angle   (and  the  higher  the  angle,  be- 
yond a  certain  point,  the  more  use- 
less the  objective).     It  is  better  as 

c— •  \  /  *-p      well  as  much  cheaper  to  purchase 

\j|  |y  objectives   without   this    adjustment 

and  then  use  the  thinnest  cover 
glasses  made.  These  objectives 
without  adjustment  are  always  well 
corrected  and  give  good  results. 

Having    mentioned    high    angle 
lenses  above,  it  may  not  be  amiss  to 
FlG  34  speak  of  these  glasses.    This  expres- 

sion refers  to  the  angular  aperture  of 

the  objective,  or,  in  other  words,  the  angle  which  the  ex- 
treme rays  of  light  make  with  each  other  in  entering  the 
objective,  and  the  larger  the  angle  the  "higher"  it  is. 

With  every  increase  in  the  angular  aperture,  a  shorter 
working  distance  of  the  lens  is  necessary,  and  so  with  very 
high-angled  lenses  the  inconvenience  of  working  far  more 
than  counterbalances  the  gain  in  definition.  Some  makers 
absurdly  claim  to  make  objectives  of  180°  angular  aperture  ! 
People  making  such  claims  should  be  carefully  avoided,  as 


USE  OF  THE    CAMERA.  99 

their  statements  are  apt  to  be  equally  unreliable  and  false  in 
other  particulars.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  above  it  is  advis- 
able to  purchase  the  lower-angled  lenses.  The  most  conven- 
ient glass  ever  used  by  the  writer  was  a  J  of  only  48°  angular 
aperture. 

One  criticism  which  the  writer  would  make  on  the  ordinary 
objective  is  the  utterly  disproportionate  length  of  brass  to 
the  optical  portion  of  lenses,  making  it  next  to  impossible  to 
use  low  power  objectives  on  the  smaller  stands.  Fig.  34 
represents  one  of  these  lenses  drawn  from  measurements, 
the  shaded  part  indicating  the  optical  portion  and  the 
dotted  line  showing  to  what  extent  it  might  conveniently  be 
shortened.  We  commend  it  to  the  attention  of  opticians. 

USE   OF  THE   CAMERA. 

The  camera  lucida,  or  camera,  as  it  is  commonly  called, 
is  one  of  the  most  useful  microscopic  accessories.  Two 


FIG.  35. 

forms  are  offered  for  sale  and  are  represented  in  fig.  35  ;  the 
one  at  the  left,  A,  is  the  most  valuable  one,  but  B  is  the  cheaper. 
The  ray  of  light  coming  through  the  microscope  falls  upon  an 
inner  surface  of  a  glass  prism  and  from  thence  is  reflected 
directly  to  the  eye  as  in  B,  or  to  a  second  surface  and  thence 
to  the  eye  as  in  A.  At  the  same  time  a  ray  of  light  coming 


ioo  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

from  the  paper  beneath  passes  through  the  prism  and  enters 
the  eye  in  the  same  direction  as  the  first.  These  lines  of 
light  are  represented  by  dotted  lines  in  the  figures.  It  will 
thus  be  seen  that  the  eye  perceives  the  object  under  the 
microscope  and  a  paper  placed  beneath,  superimposed  upon 
one  another.  Its  method  of  use  is  as  follows  :  the  micro- 
scope is  first  focussed  upon  an  object  and  then  the  tube  is 
brought  to  a  horizontal  position,  the  camera  attached  to  the 
eye-piece  and  a  paper  placed  on  the  table  beneath  the  camera. 
Then  looking  down  through  the  camera,  one  perceives  at  the 
same  time  the  paper  and  the  object.  A  pencil  may  now  be 
made  to  trace  on  the  paper  the  outlines  of  the  object,  and 
the  details  afterward  filled  in  free  hand. 

In  the  first  figured  camera  the  image  by  the  two  reflections 
is  first  reversed  and  then  reversed  again,  bringing  it  the  same 
as  that  seen  by  direct  observation  through  the  tube,  giving 
an  outline,  the  details  of  which  are  easily  filled  in. 

The  second  form  having  but  a  single  reflection  produces  a 
reversed  image,  and  hence  it  is  difficult  to  complete  free 
hand.  Instead  of  a  prism,  the  student  may  easily  make  his 
own  camera  of  this  second  form  by  mounting  a  piece  of  thin 
glass  in  a  bit  of  cork  which  can  be  affixed  to  the  tube  of  the 
microscope. 

A  third  form,  which  is  rarely  seen  in  America,  but  which  is 
in  the  opinion  of  the  writer  the  best,  is  the  "vertical"  camera, 
manufactured  by  Carl  Zeiss.  This  form  may  be  applied  to 
the  microscope  when  in  a  vertical  position,  throwing  the  im- 
age to  one  side  of  the  stand,  and  giving  the  clearest  image 
of  any,  of  both  object  and  pencil.  It  is  also  remarkably  cheap 


USE  OF  THE  CAMERA.  IOI 

costing  only  twenty-one  marks  ($5.25) .  Most  students  at  first 
find  it  difficult  to  use  a  camera,  but  practice  soon  overcomes 
the  difficulty  and  enables  one  to  adjust  the  illumination  prop- 
erly, which  otherwise  is  the  principal  cause  of  poor  success. 

The  other  accessories  for  the  microscope  which  are  of 
value  to  the  biologist  are  a  stage  micrometer,  one  or  more 
animalcule  cages,  glass  cells,  a  compressorium  (the  one  des- 
cribed by  Mr.  Ryder4  possesses  many  advantages  and  is  on 
the  whole  the  best) ,  and  a  bull's  eye  condenser  which  is  neces- 
sary with  opaque  objects,  and  when  using  the  higher  powers. 
The  polariscope  is  of  use  in  mineralogy  and  in  differentiating 
some  animal  tissues.  Rotary  stages,  unless  accurately  cen- 
tred, are  useless  and  then  are  of  value  only  to  the  mineral- 
ogists. The  stage  forceps  which  accompany  most  stands  are 
models  of  clumsiness,  are  wholly  worthless,  and  can  well  be 
dispensed  with. 

In  writing  the  foregoing  pages  on  the  microscope  and  its 
accessories,  the  writer  has  had  this  object  in  view :  to  show 
that  the  simpler  an  instrument  is,  other  things  being  equal, 
the  better  it  is,  and  that  none  need  be  deterred  from  purchas- 
ing a  microscope  on  the  grounds  that  a  good  instrument 
costs  an  outrageous  amount.  Just  as  soon  as  American  stu- 
dents realize  that  the  simpler  their  apparatus  is  the  better 
their  work  will  be,  just  so  soon  will  American  science  rise 
from  its  present  low  level. 

There  are  three  men  in  America,  who  never  did  a  single 
stroke  of  original  work  in  their  lives,  to  whom  we  are  in- 

4  American  Naturalist,  xiv,  p.  691.    1880. 


102 


NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 


debted  for  the  present  low  state  of  the  microscopical  branches 
of  biology.  These  men  without  knowing  the  first  requisite 
of  biological  work  have  denounced  good  instruments  and 
advocated  useless  ones,  have  based  their  opinions  of  the 
worth  of  an  instrument  on  its  power  of  resolving  diatoms,  and 
the  result  is  that  the  beginner,  influenced  by  their  dogmatic 
assertions  and  widely-copied  opinions,  has  been  led  to  pur- 
chase an  instrument  wholly  unsuitable  for  his  ends  and  the 
result  has  been  discouragement  and  a  cessation  of  microscopic 
work. 


THE  LABORATORY. 


CHAPTER  V. 


THE    LABORATORY. 

EVERY  museum  should  have  connected  with  it  a  laboratory 
for  practical  work.  This  is  especially  desirable  in  connection 
with  College  Museums,  as  there  is  but  one  way  in  which  Zo- 
ology should  be  taught :  directly  from  the  specimens.  There 
are  in  the  United  States  some  370  institutions  which  rejoice 
in  the  name  of  college  or  university,  but  not  ten  per  -cent, 
afford  their  students  the  slightest  facilities  for  practical  work. 
It  is  sincerely  to  be  hoped  that  the  day  is  not  far  distant, 
when  this  condition  of  affairs  will  be  changed  and  specimens 
will  replace  the  text-book  instruction. 

The  laboratory  should  be  a  commodious,  well-lighted  room, 
with,  if  possible,  a  northern  exposure,  and  furnished  with 
every  convenience  for  the  student.  Tables  for  the  students 
should  not  be  varnished,  as  in  that  case  any  accidental  spilling 
of  alcohol  will  render  them  sticky  and  unpleasant.  Instead, 
the  tables  may  be  oiled  and  thus  they  will  not  be  stained  and 
may  be  readily  washed.  Either  pine  or  cherry  is  a  good  wood 
for  tables.  A  convenient  size  for  tables  for  single  students 
is  four  feet  by  three,  and  two  and  one-half  feet  in  height. 
Should  it  be  necessary  to  place  more  than  one  student  at  a 

(105) 


io6  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

table,  the  length  should  be  increased  so  that  each  may  have 
at  least  ten  square  feet  of  table  room. 

The  support  of  the  table  as  well  as  the  floor  of  the  labora- 
tory should  be  firm,  so  that  all  unnecessary  vibration,  which 
would  prove  very  annoying  in  microscopic  work,  may  be 
avoided.  In  the  laboratory  of  Prof.  Alex.  Agassiz,  at  New- 
port, each  table  has  a  support  of  its  own  wholly  unconnected 
with  the  floor  of  the  room. 

Concerning  the  chairs  to  be  used  in  the  laboratory  but 
little  can  be  said.  It  is  best,  however,  to  use  either  wood  or 
leather-bottomed  chairs.  Of  course  no  varnish  should  be 
used  upon  them. 

Larger  tables  than  those  mentioned  above  should  be  pro- 
vided for  the  dissection  of  the  larger  forms,  and  these  should 
have  either  slate  or  metal  tops  to  prevent  the  fluids,  etc.,  from 
sinking  into  the  wood  and  causing  disagreeable  odors  by  their 
decay. 

The  order  should  be  enforced  that  every  student  should 
put  his  table  in  good  order  at  the  close  of  the  day,  should  dis- 
pose of  all  refuse  and  clean  all  instruments  before  leaving 
the  laboratory. 

If  possible,  the  laboratory  should  be  provided  with  water 
and  gas,  and  there  should  be  kept  in  close  connection  a  well 
selected  library  of  morphological  works  to  which  the  students 
should  have  unrestricted  access,  but  should  not  be  allowed 
to  remove  from  the  building.  A  list  of  indispensable  morpho- 
logical works  is  given  at  the  end  of  the  next  chapter.  Good 
bibliographies  of  anatomical  and  embryological  works  and 


THE    LABORATORY. 


I07 


papers  will  be  found  in  Balfour's  Embryology,  Owen's  An- 
atomy and  Gegenbaur's  Anatomy. 

Besides  the  tables  and  chairs,  many  of  the  following  in- 
struments, apparatus  and  reagents  will  be  useful,  all  coming 
into  use  in  a  laboratory  where  much  original  investigation  is 
carried  on,  while  in  an  ordinary  college  course  many  may  be 
omitted. 

INSTRUMENTS. 

Scalpels,  large  and  small.  Tenotomes. 

"Eye  knives." 

Dissecting  scissors,  straight  and 

curved. 
Forceps    of    various    sizes     and 

shapes. 


Microscopes,  dissecting  and  com- 
pound. 

Hand-lenses. 

Microtome. 

Beakers. 

Tiles,  white  and  black. 

Test  tube. 

Turn  tables. 

Glass  and  earthen  vessels  of  vari- 
ous shapes  and  sizes. 

Thin  glass. 

Glaziers'  diamond. 

Dropping  and  dipping  tubes. 

Tubs. 

Aquaria. 

Funnels. 

Paper. 

Pencils 


Cartilage  knives. 
Bone  saws. 
Bone  forceps. 
Dissecting  needles. 
Valentine's  knife. 
Injecting  apparatus. 
Florence  flasks. 
Evaporating  dishes. 
Glass  tubing. 
Watch  crystals. 
Hot  stage. 
Washing  bottles. 
Water  bath. 
Glass  slides. 
Micrometer  scale. 
Writing  diamond. 
Thermometers. 
Brackets. 
Sponges. 
Filter  paper. 
Dissecting  forceps. 
Colors. 


REAGENTS. 

Alcohol,  absolute,  95  and  50  per       Caustic  potash. 

Aqua  ammonia. 


cent. 


io8 


NATURALISTS'    ASSISTANT. 


Acid  acetic. 

"    carbolic. 

"    chromic. 

"    formic, 

«'    hydrochloric. 

•'    lactic. 

"    nitric. 

"    osmic. 

"    picric. 

"    sulphuric. 
Nitrate  of  silver. 
Extract  of  logwood. 
Alnm. 

Picrocarminate  of  ammonia. 
Canada  balsam. 
Dammar  varnish. 
Ring  varnish. 
Glycerine  jelly. 
Marine  glue. 
Chloroform. 
Neutral  salt  solution. 
Asphalt. 

Brunswick  black. 
Bichromate  of  potash. 
Wickerscheimer's  solution. 
Lampblack. 
Caustic  soda. 
Benzole. 
Magenta. 


Morphia  sulphate. 

Curare. 

Arsenic. 

Corrosive  sublimate. 

Glycerine. 

Carmine. 

Eosin. 

Vermilion. 

Haematoxylin. 

Creosote. 

Prussian  blue. 

Kleinen berg's  haematoxylin. 

Benzole  balsam. 

Dammar  lac. 

Bell's  cement. 

Gelatine. 

Miiller's  fluid. 

Salt. 

Chloride  of  gold. 

Paraffine. 

Borax. 

Acid  nitrate  of  mercury. 

Aniline  green. 

Iodine. 

Turpentine. 

Indigo. 

Oil  of  Bergamot. 

Oil  of  cloves. 


Each  student  should  provide  himself  -with  the  most  useful 
of  instruments  and  reagents  in  the  foregoing  list,  while  those 
which  are  but  rarely  used  might  be  furnished  by  the  labo- 
ratory. 

The  uses  of  most  of  the  various  instruments,  etc.,  in  the 
foregoing  list  will  be  described  under  the  various  heads  which 
follow,  while  the  way  in  which  many  of  the  reagents  are  made 


THE   LABORATORY.  109 

will  be  found  in  the  chapter  entitled  "  Recipes,  Formulae,  and 
Useful  Hints." 

Each  student  should  make  extended  notes  of  all  of  his 
work  and  should  accompany  it  by  illustrative  drawings. 
From  an  experience  of  several  years,  the  writer  regards 
"note-books  "  as  the  poorest  form  in  which  to  keep  notes,  as 
in  a  short  time  several  books  are  filled  and  it  becomes  an 
interminable  job  to  find  any  desired  item. 

A  far  better  way  is  to  keep  the  memoranda,  drawings,  etc., 
on  separate  sheets  which  can  be  arranged  in  portfolios  and 
envelopes  after  any  desired  system,  thus  greatly  facilitating 
reference  and  admitting  of  future  interpolations. 

A  word  in  regard  to  drawing  may  not  come  amiss.  Most 
persons  have  an  idea  that  they  cannot  draw  or  learn  to  draw. 
Nothing  possesses  less  of  truth.  Any  one  with  a  little  prac- 
tice can  make  an  intelligible  drawing,  though  but  few  acquire 
that  skill  and  facility  which  are  necessary  for  book  illustration. 
Almost  every  student  whom  the  writer  has  seen  enter  a  bio- 
logical laboratory,  has  said  that  he  or  she  could  not  possibly 
draw  and  never  could  learn  how.  But  those  same  students  in 
a  very  short  space  of  time  would  produce  creditable  drawings 
to  illustrate  their  dissections.  The  great  secret  of  drawing 
is  "  patience."  Drawing  takes  time,  and  the  trouble  with  be- 
ginners is  that  they  want  to  hurry.  No  instruction  is  necessary 
to  enable  a  student  to  reproduce  with  more  or  less  accuracy 
the  features  of  any  preparation  or  dissection  ;  practice  alone 
will  do  it. 

Drawings  will  express  far  more  than  pages  of  description, 
and  whenever  it  is  practicable  they  should  be  employed. 


no  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

For  scientific  work  "bristol  board"  and  a  "six  H"  lead 
pencil  produce  the  best  results.  The  shades  may  be  put  in  with 
India  ink  and  a  camel's  hair  or,  better,  a  sable  brush.  In 
case  it  be  desired  to  color  a  drawing,  water  colors  are  best, 
and  the  moist  water  colors  are  the  most  convenient  to  use. 

It  is  frequently  desirable  to  use  certain  colors  for  certain 
organs  and  thus  through  a  series  of  drawings  to  indicate  the 
parts  with  similar  functions  and  the  following  list  embraces 
the  conventional  colors  most  used. 

White  or  neutral  tint,  nerves. 
Red,  heart  and  arteries. 
Blue,  veins. 

Brown,  the  alimentary  canal. 
Green,  liver. 
Purple,  renal  organs. 
Yellow,  female  sexual  organs. 
Orange,  male  sexual  organs. 

In  a  series  of  drawings  with  these  conventional  tints  the 
eye  readily  appreciates  the  principal  features  of  the  anatomy 
without  the  aid  of  descriptive  text.  Other  organs  than  those 
enumerated  may  be  left  blank  or  colored  according  to  the 
fancy  of  the  artist. 

The  various  photographic  processes  of  reproducing  illus- 
trations have  lately  acquired  great  prominence  and  a  few 
hints  on  preparing  drawings  for  the  photographer  may  prove 
of  use. 

The  "direct  transfer  "  process  of  the  Heliotype  Company 
is  but  poorly  fitted  for  scientific  work  and  the  results  are  very 


THE    LABORATORY.  Ill 

unsatisfactory.  The  drawings  are  made  upon  bristol  board 
with  an  ink  containing  alum  and  these  are  given  to  the  com- 
pany who  produce  facsimiles,  but  they  are  always  muddy  and 
blurred. 

For  all  other  photo  processes  the  drawings  require  that 
each  line  should  be  perfectly  black  and  smooth.  The  draw- 
ings should  always  be  made  on  bristol  board.  No  wash 
tints  or  pencil  work  will  take,  but  all  shades  have  to  be  ex- 
pressed either  by  lines  or  dots.  Winsor  and  Newton's  liquid 
India  ink  produces  good  results,  especially  if  more  cake  ink 
is  rubbed  up  with  it. 

Of  the  photo  processes  the  photo-lithographic  is  the  most 
satisfactory  but  this  cannot  be  used  along  with  press  work, 
but  requires  separate  plates.  The  various  processes  for  pro- 
ducing raised  plates  (photo-electrotypes)  do  not  vary  much 
and  the  chief  distinction  between  them  seems  to  lie  in  the 
skill  of  the  operators.  The  writer  has  noticed,  however,  that 
by  whatever  process,  if  a  poor  electrotype  resulted,  it  was 
always  attributed  to  the  fault  of  the  one  furnishing  the  draw- 
ing, and  not  to  any  fault  of  the  photographer,  electrotyper  or 
of  the  process. 


LABORATORY  WORK, 


CHAPTER  VI. 


LABORATORY    WORK. 

THE  account  which  follows  is  from  the  necessities  of  the 
case  greatly  condensed,  many  points  of  great  importance  be- 
ing entirely  omitted.  This  account  is  intended  for  the 
beginner  only.  For  more  extended  directions  the  student 
is  directed  to  the  list  of  books  at  the  end  of  this  chapter ; 
those  of  Huxley  and  Martin,  Tulk  and  Henfrey,  Burden- 
Sanderson,  Strieker  and  Ranvier  giving  the  best  and  most 
detailed  instructions.  Beale's  book,  like  most  of  his  other 
works,  is  in  many  respects  unreliable. 

DISSECTING. 

All  small  objects  should  be  dissected  under  water  or  a 
mixture  of  alcohol  and  water,  as  these  media  tend  to  support 
and  float  the  parts  and  tissues  which  otherwise  would  mat  to- 
gether to  a  greater  or  less  extent,  and  thus  obscure  the  dis- 
section. Dissecting  troughs  are  used  for  this  purpose. 
These  are  usually  made  of  tin  (firj.  36).  These  troughs,  for 
ordinary  work,  should  be  about  six  by  eight  inches  square, 
and  one  and  a  half  to  two  inches  in  depth.  Small  tin  slips 

(115) 


n6  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

should  be  soldered  to  the  sides  near  the  bottom  to  hold  the 
false  bottom  in  position.  This  false  bottom  may  be  of  cork, 
wax,  or  other  material  which  will  hold  a  pin.  It  is  best  for 
most  purposes  to  have  the  bottom  black,  either  by  mixing 
lampblack  v/ith  the  melted  wax  before  it  is  run  in,  or  by 
painting  the  cork.  Other  larger  and  smaller  tanks  should 
be  provided  for  other  work.  The  object  to  be  dissected 
should  be  pinned  out  upon  the  wax,  and  just  enough  water 


FIG.  36. 

to  cover  the  specimen  poured  in ;  a  greater  quantity  interferes 
with  facility  of  work.  When  the  water  becomes  discolored 
or  dirty,  it  should  of  course  be  changed. 

In  case  of  the  smaller  animals,  as  grasshoppers,  etc.,  it  is 
frequently  difficult  to  pin  the  subject  out,  but  the  following 
plan  will  answer  well.  With  a  hot  wire  melt  a  small  groove 
in  the  wax  bottom  and,  while  the  wax  is  still  in  a  molten 
condition,  place  the  object  in  it  and,  when  cold,  it  will  be 
held  firmly.  Before  doing  this  the  specimen  should  have  all 


DISSECTING.  1 1  7 

moisture  removed  from  the  surface,  and,  of  course,  it  should 
not  be  placed  above  the  middle  line  in  the  wax. 

At  the  close  of  the  day's  work  the  specimen  should  be  re- 
moved from  the  tank  and  placed  in  alcohol,  while  the  tank 
itself  should  be  placed  wrong  side  up  to  drain. 

Below  is  given  a  very  brief  account  of  the  methods  of 
studying  the  gross  anatomy  of  a  number  of  types  ;  all  descrip- 
tions of  the  organs  being  intentionally  omitted.  As  the 
student  proceeds,  he  should  make  drawings  as  well  as  notes 
of  his  work  and  should  endeavor  to  rely  as  much  on  himself 
and  as  little  on  text  books  and  instructors  as  possible. 

Protozoa  can  only  be  studied  with  the  microscope. 

Sponges  are  best  studied  by  cutting  sections  and  examining 
them  under  the  microscope.  The  various  structures  and  ar- 
rangements of  parts  can  then  be  made  out  more  or  less 
clearly,  and  the  eggs  and  embryo.;  in  various  stages  of  de- 
velopment can  frequently  be  seen.  To  study  the  spicules, 
the  specimen  should  be  macerated  in  water,  then  picked  to 
pieces  with  needles  and  examined  under  the  microscope. 

Sea  Anemones  are  dissected  from  the  side,  when  the 
genitalia,  mesenteries  and  digestive  portions  are  seen.  By 
freezing  and  cutting  transverse  sections,  the  relations  of  the 
mesenteries  to  the  alimentary  canal  are  made  out.  The 
various  cell  layers  should  be  studied  in  stained  microscopic 
sections  and  the  lassoo  cells  should  be  looked  for. 

Starfish  shquld  have  the  upper  surface  of  the  armr,  removed, 
taking  care  that  the  portion  around  the  madreporic  body  be 
left  uninjured  until  it  becomes  necessary  to  cut  it  away.  Sea 
Urchins  may  be  divided  into  two  halves  by  a  horizontal  plane, 


n8  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

or  one  side  of  the  skeleton  may  be  broken  in.  Holothurians 
should  be  first  carefully  examined,  and  the  genital  opening, 
which  is  near  the  mouth,  found.  This  genital  opening  should 
be  placed  in  the  median  line  above,  and  then  a  longitudinal 
incision  made  from  the  genital  pore  to  near  the  anus.  This 
will  expose  the  viscera  and  the  parts  will  show  a  bilateral 
symmetry.  The  relation  of  the  longitudinal  nerves  and 
canals,  and  the  ambulacra  should  be  studied  by  cutting 
through  the  integument  and  one  of  the  longitudinal  muscles. 
Clams  are  dissected  by  removing  one  valve.  In  order 
that  uniformity  may  be  obtained  the  valve  removed  is  the 
left  one.  To  ascertain  the  right  and  left,  hold  the  clam  with 
the  hinge  from  you,  and  the  end  from  which  the  siphons  ex- 
tend at  your  right  hand  ;  the  upper  valve  will  then  be  the  left 
one.  Insert  a  dull  knife  in  the  gape  of  the  shell  and  cut  the 
strong  muscles  which  hold  it  closed.  These  will  be  found  in 
the  cla»Ji  near  the  hinge  line,  at  the  two  ends  of  the  shell. 
In  the  mussel  (Mytilus)  and  the  oyster  but  one  such  muscle 
will  be  found.  The  heart  (near  the  hinge  line) ,  the  aliment- 
ary canal  with  its  tortuous  course  and  the  nervous  system 
may  be  then  studied.  The  gills  under  the  microscope  show 
a  fine  example  of  ciliary  action. 

Snails  should  be  extracted  from  the  shell,  by  breaking  it  or 
otherwise,  and  opened  from  the  dorsal  surface. 

The  larger  worms  may  also  be  opened  from  above,  but 
many  of  the  smaller  ones,  especially  among  tlie  lower  forms, 
must  be  studied  in  sections. 

Lobsters  are  opened  by  removing  a  portion  of  the  carapax 
exposing  the  circulatory  apparatus,  etc.  The  nervous  system 


DISSECTING.  %   '  119 

lies  on  the  floor  of  the  body  cavity  and  in  a  portion  of  its 
course  is  covered  by  bony  arches.  These  must  be  broken 
down.  The  homologies  of  the  legs  and  mouth  parts  should 
also  be  investigated.  The  gills  will  be  found  under  the  sides 
of  the  carapax.  The  relations  and  motions  of  the  teeth  found 
in  the  stomach  will  prove  an  interesting  subject  for  study. 
Insects  are  dissected  in  much  the  same  way  as  lobsters,  but 
from  their  smaller  size  require  more  delicate  manipulation. 

Frogs  are  one  of  the  best  of  vertebrates  for  study.  In  inves- 
tigating the  visceral  anatomy  they  should  be  killed  by  pithing; 
a  needle  is  forced  into  the  spinal  canal  at  the  base  of  the  skull 
and  forced  down  the  canal  and  also  into  the  brain.  The  frog 
is  now  opened  in  the  median  ventral  line  and  the  parts  care- 
fully dissected  out.  The  heart  will  continue  beating  for  a 
considerable  time  after  the  animal  has  been  killed.  The 
brain  is  studied  by  opening  the  skull  from  the  top.  The 
muscles  are  easily  dissected,  their  origin  and  insertion  readily 
seen  and  the  results  produced  by  each  one,  readily  under- 
stood. Fishes  and  many  mammals  are  generally  opened  from 
the  side.  The  left  side  is  the  one  usually  chosen,  the  head 
being  directed  toward  the  left  hand  of  the  operator. 

The  amount  of  time  which  can  be  advantageously  spent 
on  a  single  form  or  even  on  a  single  specimen  is  very  great. 
In  studying  the  anatomy  of  any  form  there  should  be  no 
haste.  Not  a  single  cut  should  be  made  until  the  student 
realizes  just  why  and  what  results  will  follow.  It  is  far  better 
to  know  the  structure  of  one  form  well  than  to  have  a  super- 
ficial and  very  vague  idea  of  a  dozen  or  more  forms. 


120  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

INJECTING. 

The  circulatory  system  is  best  studied  in  injected  speci- 
mens.    These  are  prepared  as  follows  :   an  artery  or   other 
vessel  is  exposed  and  opened  and  in  the  opening  the  nozzle 
of  the  injecting  apparatus  is  inserted.     Usually  an  injecting 
syringe  is  use.     This  is  a  metal  instrument,  closely  resembling 
the  ordinary  "surgeon's  syringe,"  provided  with 
nozzles  of  various  sizes.     Sometimes  instead  of  a 
syringe  an  apparatus  is  used  in  which  the  weight 
of  water  or  mercury  is  employed  to  force  in  the 
injection.     This  has  the  advantage  of  affording 
a  steadier  pressure  then  can  be  obtained  in  the 
ordinary   manner.     Fig.  37  represents  this   ap- 
paratus.    Three   bottles   are   required,  each  of 
which  is  corked  with  a  stopper  through  which 
two  glass  tubes  pass.     One  of  each  pair  of  tubes 
goes  to  the  bottom  of  the  bottle 
while  the  other  merely  passes 
through  the  corks.    One  bottle 
(/£)   is  filled  with  water  and  is 
suspended  by  a  string  (a)  pas- 
sing over  a  pulley  by  which  its 

height  may  be  regulated.  This  bottle  is  connected  with  the 
second  (d)  by  a  rubber  pipe  attached  to  the  long  glass  tube 
in  each.  This  in  turn  is  connected  with  the  third  by  a  second 
rubber  pipe  attached  to  the  short  glass  tube  and  from  this 
bottle  runs  a  rubber  pipe  bearing  the  glass  injecting  nozzle. 
The  methods  of  use  are  as  follows  :  the  tube  connecting 


INJECTING.  121 

the  first  two  bottles  is  filled  and  acts  as  a  siphon  and  thus 
conveys  the  water  to  the  second  bottle  creating  there  a  pres- 
sure which  in  turn  is  communicated  to  the  bottle,  <?,  which 
contains  the  injecting  material  and  which  is  thus  forced  out 
into  the  subject.  By  elevating  or  depressing  the  bottle  b  any 
desired  pressure  may  be  obtained. 

With  the  injecting  apparatus  a  colored  fluid  is  forced  into 
the  vessels,  rendering  it  very  easy  to  trace  them  in  dissecting. 
In  some  cases  a  saturated  solution  of  prussian  blue  is  suffi- 
cient for  this  purpose  but  it  is  better  to  employ  albumen  or 
gelatine  as  a  basis. 

Common  gelatine  is  melted  over  a  slow  fire  with  the  aid 
of  water,  in  the  proportions  necessary  to  make  a  stiff  jelly 
when  cold.  These  proportions  are  usually  given  on  the  out- 
side of  the  package.  When  melted,  the  coloring  matter  is 
stirred  in.  This  may  be  an  aqueous  solution  of  carmine  or 
prussian  blue.  Vermilion  and  yellow  ochre  are  sometimes 
used  but  from  their  weight  they  are  not  readily  held  in 
suspension. 

In  injecting  with  gelatine  the  object  must  be  first  warmed 
and  then  kept  in  warm  water  while  the  operation  is  being 
performed,  otherwise  the  jelly  will  set  before  the  fine  vessels 
are  filled.  To  ensure  success  the  specimen  injected  should 
be  fresh,  not  alcoholic.  When  injected,  the  vessels  should  be 
tied  and  the  specimen  put  away  to  cool  so  that  the  jelly  may 
set.  It  is  well  to  place  it  immediately  in  alcohol  as  that 
reagent  facilitates  the  process  by  the  extraction  of  water. 

The  place  for  the  introduction  of  the  injecting  fluid  varies 
with  the  form  operated  upon,  as  well  as  the  system  to  be 


122  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

filled.  In  Vertebrates  the  arterial  system  may  be  injected 
from  the  aorta.  In  Crustacea  a  small  hole  should  be  bored 
through  the  carapax  immediately  over  the  heart  and  into  this 
the  nozzle  of  the  syringe  should  be  inserted,  taking  care  that 
the  tip  enters,  but  does  not  pass  through  the  heart.  Injecting 
mollusks  is  rather  more  difficult,  the  injection  should  be 
forced  into  the  heart,  or  into  the  vessel  at  the  base  of  the 
gills  •  while  starfishes  are  most  easily  injected  by  cutting  off  an 
arm  and  inserting  the  nozzle  into  the  tube  found  on  the  lower 
surface.  Insects  and  worms  are  only  injected  w;th  very 
delicate  manipulation.  The  method  just  described  injects 
only  the  arterial  system.  To  fill  the  veins  is  not  so  easy.  It 
is  best  accomplished  by  forcing  the  injection  into  some  distal 
portion  and  allowing  it  to  find  its  way  back  to  the  heart. 
Thus  the  web  of  a  frog's  foot,  the  claw  of  a  lobster  and  the 
foot  of  a  mollusk  are  the  best  places  for  those  forms.  Great 
care  must  be  exercised  in  performing  an  injection  that  the 
pressure  employed  is  not  sufficient  to  rupture  the  vessels. 
The  more  recently  life  is  extinct  the  stronger  the  vessels  are. 
Besides  injecting  colored  material  to  aid  in  the  demonstra- 
tion of  the  circulating  system,  various  preservations  are  some- 
times injected  into  the  arteries,  alimentary  canal  and  body 
cavity  to  aid  in  keeping  the  specimens.  Herr  Wickerschei- 
mer  recommends  his  fluid  for  this  purpose. 

SECTION  CUTTING. 

It  is  necessary  in  making  microscopic  examinations  of 
structures  and  tissues  to  have  them  thin  enough  to  be  trans- 
parent, or  very  translucent,  otherwise  they  cannot  be  well 


SECTION  CUTTING.  123 

illuminated.  There  are  two  ways  of  accomplishing  this  :  by 
teasing  and  by  cutting  sections. 

The  easier  method  is  by  teasing.  To  do  this  a  portion  of 
the  object  is  placed  on  a  slide  with  the  addition  of  a  few 
drops  of  water,  alcohol,  glycerine  or  neutral  salt  solution  ac- 
cording to  the  nature  of  the  specimens  and  the  objects  or 
portions  which  it  is  desired  to  see.  Then  with  two  dissecting 
needles  the  tissue  is  teased  or  pulled  into  shreds,  and  then 
examined  under  the  microscope,  or  mounted  permanently 
after  any  desired  method. 

Teasing  produces  good  results  in  fibrous  tissue  where  it  is 
desired  to  isolate  the  fibres,  as  in  nerves,  muscles,  connective 
tissue,  etc.  At  other  times  it  does  not  work  so  well. 

Section  cutting  is,  however,  the  most  universal  and  in  the 
majority  of  cases  the  best  method  of  preparing  substances  for 
examination,  but  at  the  same  time  it  requires  more  time  to 
accomplish.  The  various  processes  can  conveniently  be  taken 
up  in  the  following  order :  hardening  and  decalcifying,  em- 
bedding, cutting  and  freeing  from  the  embedding  material. 

Fresh  tissues  are  generally  either  too  soft,  or  in  the  case  of 
bones,  teeth,  scales,  and  shell  too  hard  to  admit  of  being  read- 
ily cut  and  hence  certain  steps  must  be  taken  to  prepare  them 
for  the  razor. 

Suppose  we  have  an  object,  an  embryo  tadpole  for  instance, 
of  which  we  desire  to  obtain  sections.  This  in  its  natural  con- 
dition would  be  far  too  soft  and  must  be  hardened.  This 
hardening  may  be  accomplished  in  various  ways.  The  most 
common  method  is  first  to  place  it  for  a  few  hours  in  weak 
alcohol  (about  40  per  cent.)  ;  it  is  then  transferred  to  stronger 


124  NATURALISTS7   ASSISTANT. 

(say  60  per  cent.)  spirit  and  after  a  short  time  is  placed  in 
strong  alcohol  (90  to  95  per  cent.).  The  object  after  a  day 
or  two  in  this  will  be  found  to  be  much  harder,  and  to  pos- 
sess a  consistence  fitting  it  for  the  use  of  the  razor.  The 
object  of  the  successive  uses  of  spirit  of  increasing  strength 
is  to  prevent  that  contraction  and  distortion  of  the  object 
which  would  occur  were  it  placed  at  once  in  the  strongest 
alcohol. 

Muller's  fluid  is  also  extensively  used  for  hardening  objects, 
as  are  also  chromic  acid  and  Kleinenberg's  picric  acid.  The 
modus  operandi  is  essentially  the  same  with  either.  The 
specimen  is  placed  in  a  large  quantity  of  the  solution  (Mul- 
ler's fluid  as  directed  on  p.  138,  or  chromic  acid  1  and  £  per 
cent.)  and  after  a  day  or  two,  is  transferred  to  alcohol.  These 
solutions  must  not  be  too  strong  nor  must  the  specimens  be 
kept  too  long  in  them,  else  they  will  become  so  brittle  as  to 
crumble  under  the  section  knife,  rendering  it  impossible  to  ob- 
tain thin  sections.  A  little  experience  will  enable  one  to  esti- 
mate the  proper  time  for  various  tissues. 

Osmic  acid  (one  to  one-tenth  per  cent,  solution)  is  also 
very  useful  for  hardening  and  at  the  same  time  it  stains  the 
section  more  or  less  darkly  from  a  gray  to  a  black.  As  noted 
on  another  page,  it  is  selective  in  its  staining,  affecting  nerves 
and  fatty  tissues  more  strongly  than  other  tissues.  The  object 
is  placed  in  the  solution  a  varying  number  of  hours  according 
to  the  tissue,  and  then  is  washed  thoroughly  with  distilled  water 
and  transferred  to  alcohol. 

Other  methods  advocated  by  some  students  consist  of  the 
use  of  bichromate  of  potash,  and  among  the  older  workers 


SECTION  CUTTING.  125 

corrosive  sublimate,  but  the  foregoing  answer  all  practical 
purposes. 

When  there  are  bone  or  lime  salts  in  the  tissues,  chromic  acid 
is  the  most  useful  reagent.  It  serves  at  the  same  time  to 
harden  the  soft  portions  and  to  decalcify  and  thus  soften  the 
hard.  The  object  must  be  placed  in  a  large  quantity  of  the 
fluid  of  a  greater  strength  (one  to  two  per  cent.)  and  the 
acid  should  be  frequently  changed  until  all  lime  salts  have 
disappeared.  Of  course,  with  this  increase  in  strength  of  acid 
and  the  length  of  time  of  immersion,  one  runs  a  risk  of  the 
other  portion  becoming  brittle,  but  this  cannot  well  be 
avoided.  In  some  cases  it  is  necessary  to  use  dilute  hydro- 
chloric acid  in  place  of  the  chromic.  This  should  rarely  be 
used  of  greater  strength  than  one  per  cent.  After  the  sub- 
stance is  thoroughly  decalcified  it  is  transferred  to  alcohol. 

Frequently  specimens  contain  such  a  large  amount  of  pig- 
ment matter  as  to  render  the  thinnest  section  opaque  and  to 
utterly  obscure  all  cell  limits.  In  such  cases  it  is  necessary 
to  immerse  the  tissues  in  25  per  cent,  nitric  acid,  and  to  watch 
closely  until  the  color  disappears.  This  usually  takes  some 
hours,  and  the  sections  cut  from  such  material  are  not  very 
satisfactory  but  are  the  best  that  can  be  obtained. 

The  process  of  embedding  comes  next  in  order.  The  sub- 
stances used  are  many,  the  mo'st  common  being  pure  par- 
affine,  a  mixture  of  paraffine  and  oil  or  tallow,  wax  and  tallow, 
transparent  soap,  gum  arabic,  and  glycerine  jelly.  With  most 
substances  paraffine,  without  the  admixture  of  anything,  gives 
the  best  results,  though  many  advise  the  addition  of  a  fourth 
to  a  half  of  paraffine  oil,  or  lard,  or  tallow,  to  render  it  softer. 


126  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

It  will  be  seen  that  in  the  above  hardening  processes  the 
specimen  was  left  in  strong  alcohol.  This  fits  it  for  the  next 
step,  which  is  to  soak  it  for  a  while  (say  half  an  hour)  in  spirits 
of  turpentine.  While  the  specimen  is  soaking  the  paraffine 
should  be  melted  in  a  water  bath  (or  in  its  absence  a  sand 
bath  may  suffice),  over  a  spirit  lamp  or  gas  jet.  A  small  por- 
tion of  the  paraffine  should  always  be  allowed  to  remain  un- 
melted  as  thus  the  remainder  will  not  acquire  too  high  a 
temperature.  When  melted  a  portion  of  the  paraffine  is 
poured  into  a  paper  tray  covering  the  bottom  to  the  depth  of 
an  inch,  and  just  allowed  to  "  set."  The  object  is  then  re- 
moved from  the  turpentine,  the  superfluous  spirit  being  re- 
moved by  blotting  paper,  and  next  placed  on  the  surface  of 
the  paraffine  in  the  tray  and  completely  covered  by  more  of 
the  melted  paraffine.  When  cold  it  is  ready  for  cutting.  The 
object  when  placed  in  the  tray  should  be  in  such  a  position 
that  the  sections  may  be  cut  in  the  desired  plane,  and  note 
should  be  taken  of  its  position,  as  after  the  paraffine  becomes 
hard  this  is  difficult  to  ascertain. 

In  case  the  specimen  to  be  embedded  contains  cavities, 
pains  should  be  taken  to  fill  these  with  paraffine.  The  usual 
method  of  doing  this  is  to  transfer  the  object  directly  from 
the  turpentine  to  a  mixture  of  half  turpentine  and  half  par- 
affine which  is  kept  just  melted.  After  a  few  minutes'  immer- 
sion in  this  mixture  it  is  transferred  to  the  tray  and  the  process 
completed  as  before. 

A  convenient  tray  may  be  made  from  common  writing  paper 
by  taking  a  piece  of  proper  proportions  to  the  object  to  be 
embedded,  longer  than  wide  and  folded  on  the  lines  shown  in 


SECTION   CUTTING. 


127 


the  accompanying  figure.  This  is  then  made  into  a  tray,  the 
diagonals  coming  on  the  outside  of  the  ends  arid  then  the 
portions  which  project  on  each  of  the  shorter  sides  are  folded 
down,  thus  holding  the  whole  securely. 

In  case  a  section  cutter  with  a  hollow  tube  (e.  g.,  the  Ster- 
ling microtome)  be  employed,  it  is  better  to  embed  directly  in 
the  tube,  the  process  being  essentially  the  same. 

When  soap  is  used  for  an  embedding  medium,  the  object  is 
soaked  in  water  instead  of  turpentine  and  the  soap  is  melted 
with  the  addition  of  a  slight  amount  of  the  same  fluid.  Other- 
wise the  process  is  the  same  as  before. 


FIG.    38. 

The  foregoing  methods  both  require  heat  and  with  many 
tissues  as  nerves,  this  produces  an  injurious  effect.  To  avoid 
this  gum  arable  is  employed.  The  specimen  is  washed  in 
water  and  then  placed  in  a  thick  mucilage  of  gum  arabic  and 
water,  and  the  whole  immersed  in  strong  alcohol.  The  alco- 
hol extracts  the  water  and  thus  coagulates  and  hardens  the 
whole. 

Glycerine  jelly  requires  heat  but  otherwise  is  used  the  same 
as  gum  arabic.  Mr.  Moseley  found  it  very  useful  in  studying 
the  structure  of  Millepora  and  allied  corals. 


128  NATURALISTS'   ASSISTANT. 

Elder  pith  is  used  by  a  few  as  an  embedding  material  for 
some  animal  tissue,  but  I  have  had  no  experience  with  it. 
The  object,  surrounded  with  pith,  is  placed  in  the  tube  of  the 
microtome  and  then  the  pith  is  wetted  which  causes  it  to  swell 
and  hold  the  whole  firmly. 

Of  late  years  freezing  has  been  a  favorite  method  with  those 
objects  which  are  injured  by  heat.  In  this  process  the  speci- 
men is  immersed  in  a  mucilage  of  gum  arabic  in  the  tube  of 
the  microtome  and  frozen  by  an  ether  spray,  or  by  having  the 
tube  surrounded  by  a  tank  in  which  is  kept  a  freezing  mixture 
of  salt  and  ice. 

Having  embedded  our  object  the  next  thing  in  order  is  to 
cut  the  sections.  The  first  thing  necessary  is  a  knife.  The 
most  usual  form  is  an  ordinary  razor,  one  side  of  which  is 
ground  flat.  It  is  well  to  have  the  other  side  concave  as  thus 
a  thinner  edge  is  procured  and  the  razor  acts  less  like  a  wedge. 
At  other  times  a  knife  made  especially  for  the  purpose  is  used. 
The  knife,  or  razor,  should  be  kept  very  sharp,  and  should 
have  a  perfect  edge,  free  from  any  nicks,  even  if  too  small  to 
be  seen  by  the  naked  eye,  as  these  will  catch  and  ruin  the 
section. 

With  practice  good  sections  can  be  readily  cut  free  hand, 
and  it  is  always  desirable  that  the  student  should  be  able  to 
produce  good  results  in  this  manner,  whether  he  possess  a 
microtome  or  not.  In  cutting  sections  free  hand  the  bit  of 
paraffine  is  held  in  the  left  hand  and  the  razor  either  drawn 
towards  or  pushed  from  the  operator  with  the  right.  Some 
work  one  way  and  some  the  other ;  the  razor  should  not  be 
pushed  straight  through  but  should  have  a  drawing  stroke, 


SECTION   CUTTING.  1 29 

When  about  to  begin  cutting  the  sections,  the  paraffine 
mass  'should  be  removed  from  the  tray  and  trimmed  to  a  con- 
venient size,  leaving  more  material  behind  the  object  than  in 
front  of  it.  Slices  should  then  be  carefully  taken  from  above 
the  object  until  it  is  reached  and  then  even  greater  care  should 
be  taken.  In  case  a  mass  of  tissue  is  being  cut  it  should  be 
pared  down  until  a  good  surface  is  reached,  the  slices  taken 
off  being  rejected.  When  an  embryo  is  being  cut  every  slice, 
whether  perfect  or  not,  should  be  preserved.  Always,  when 
cutting  sections  from  paraffine  embedding^,  the  up- 
per surface  of  the  razor  should  be  flooded  with 
strong  alcohol ;  when  soap  is  used  water  replaces 
the  alcohol  and  with  glycerine  jelly  glycerine  is 
useful.  The  object  of  this  is  to  float  the  object  up 
and  prevent  its  sticking  to  the  razor  and  thus  be- 
coming torn.  It  is  convenient  to  have  a  shallow 
tank  before  the  worker  filled  with  alcohol  or  water, 
into  which  the  razor  with  the  section  is  dipped,  the 
section  being  floated  off  and  the  razor  wetted  for  FlG-  39 
the  next  section  at  the  same  time.  When  a  sufficient  number 
of  sections  have  been  cut  from  a  paraffine  embedding,  the 
embedded  material  may  be  sealed  up  by  placing  a  drop  or 
two  of  melted  paraffine  on  the  cut  end  and  the  wfiole  then 
labelled  and  put  aside  for  future  sections.  A  specimen  thus 
embedded  will  keep  for  months  without  injury  and  may  be 
cut  from  at  any  time. 

After  cutting,  the  sections  are  to  be  freed  from  their  em- 
bedding material.     In  the  case  of  paraffine  this  is  accom- 
plished by  immersion  in  turpentine.    When  soap,  or  gum,  or 
9 


130  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

jelly  is  used,  water  will  accomplish  this.  After  being  freed, 
they  may  be  kept  in  alcohol  or  mounted  as  desired.  In 
handling  sections  the  greatest  care  should  be  exercised.  A 
very  convenient  instrument  is  a  section  lifter,  consisting  of 
a  thin  sheet  of  metal  attached  at  an  angle  to  a  handle. 
This  is  passed  under  a  section  floating  in  the  liquid  which 
is  gently  lifted  and  floated  off  in  the  desired  place. 

In  case  it  be  desired  to  keep  the  sections  in  consecutive 
order,  each  as  cut  must  be  transferred  to  its  proper  recepta- 
cle and  properly  labelled. 

To  aid  in  cutting  sections  mechanical  appliances  have 
been  invented.  These  are  known  as  microtomes  or  section 
cutters.  Of  these  many  forms  have  been  in  use,  the  best 
and  most  common  being  those  described  below. 

The  simplest  form  is  the  Sterling  microtome  (so  called 
from  its  inventor) .  This  consists  of  a  tube  in  which  moves 
a  plug,  regulated  by  a  screw  with  a  large  graduated  head. 
The  other  end  of  the  tube  bears  a  large  brass  or  glass  plate 
over  the  surface  of  which  the  razor  passes. 

The  method  of  using  is  simple  :  the  embedded  material  oc- 
cupies the  tube  resting  on  the  plug,  a  slight  turn  of  the 
screw  moves  the  whole  forward,  a  slice  is  taken  off  with  the 
razor,  and  the  process  is  repeated. 

By  knowing  the  number  of  threads  to  the  inch  of  the 
screw,  and  the  fraction  of  a  turn  which  it  made  in  cutting 
each  section,  the  thickness  is  an  easy  matter  to  ascertain. 
This  section  cutter  (as  in  fact  all  others)  produces  sections 
with  parallel  surfaces,  a  rather  difficult  thing  to  obtain  by  cut- 
ting free  hand. 


SECTION   CUTTING.  13! 

Some  iii  using  this  microtome  prefer  to  hold  it  in  the  hand, 
others  fasten  it  to  the  table  and  thus  have  both  hands  free 
for  work. 


FIG.  40. 

The  next  form  to  be  described  is  the  "Sledge  Microtome" 
which  was  introduced  to  the  American  public  by  Dr.  C.  S. 
Minot.  It  is  probably  the  best  of  these  instruments. 


132  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

It  consists  of  a  heavy  oblong  base  about  four  by  ten 
inches  and  about  a  quarter  of  an  inch  in  thickness.  Arising 
from  this  base  is  an  upright  plate  ;  on  either  side  of  these  are 
"ways, "  those  on  one  side  being  horizontal  and  on  the  other 
slightly  inclined.  On  the  horizontal  ones  a  carrier  travels 
holding  the  knife,  while  on  the  other  a  second  carrier  is 
borne,  moved  by  a  screw.  This  second  carrier  holds  the 
embedded  specimen.  Its  method  of  operation  is  as  fol- 
lows :  the  embedded  material  is  placed  in  the  carrier  which 
is  moved  forward  and  upward  until  it  is  high  enough  to  cut. 
Then  the  knife  is  slowly  but  steadily  drawn  across  the  end  of 
the  embedded  object.  The  knife  is  then  returned,  the  screw 
turned  the  fraction  of  a  revolution,  and  then  another  sec- 
tion cut.  Of  course  the  knife  is  to  be  constantly  wet  with 
alcohol.  A  valuable  addition  to  this  instrument  may  be  made 
by  having  the  object  carrier  mounted  on  a  universal  joint,  thus 
permitting  any  desired  inclination.  Some  sections  of  this 
model  are  made  of  wood  and  are  good  for  nothing. 

Dr.  Seiler's  microtome  is  well  shown  in  the  figure  and 
needs  no  further  description.  It  possesses  this  advantage 
over  all  others,  that  the  knife  has  a  drawing  motion. 

Freezing  microtomes  are  sometimes  employed.  These 
are  generally  of  the  Sterling  pattern  and  have  an  attachment 
by  which  a  considerable  degree  of  cold  may  be  obtained 
either  by  ice  and  salt  or  by  ether  spray. 


BOOKS    FOR   THE    LABORATORY.  133 

Balfour,  F.  M.  Treatise  on  Comparative  Embryology.  2  vols. 
(1  pub.),  8vo.  London,  1880. 

Beale,  L.  S.  How  to  work  with  the  Microscope.  5th  edit. 
8vo.  London,  1880. 

Brooks,  W.  K.    Handbook  of  Invertebrate  Zool.    Boston,  1882. 

Burden,  Sanderson.  Handbook  for  the  Physiological  Labora- 
tory. 2  vols.  8vo.  London,  1877. 

Foster  and  Balfour.  Elements  of  Embryology.  12mo.  Lon- 
don, 1874. 

Foster,  M.     Text  Book  of  Physiology.    12mo.    London,  1877. 

Clark,  H.  J.     Mind  in  Nature.     8vo.     N.  Y.,  1865. 

Gegenbaur,  C.  Elements  of  Comparative  Anatomy.  8vo. 
London,  1878. 

Huxley,  T.  H.  Manual  of  the  Anatomy  of  Vertebrated  An- 
imals. 12mo.  London,  1871. 

Huxley,  T  H.  Manual  of  the  Anatomy  of  Invertebrated 
Animals.  12mo.  N.  Y.,  1878. 

Huxley  &  Martin.     Elementary  Biology.     12mo.     N.  Y.,  1876. 

Milne-Edwards,  H.  Lecons  sur  la  Physiologic  et  1'Anatomie 
comparee  de  1'homme  et  des  Animaux.  13  vols.,  8vo.  Paris, 
1857-79. 

Owen,  Richard.  The  Anatomy  of  Vertebrates.  3  vols.,  8vo. 
London,  1868. 

Ranvier.     Traite  d'Histologie.    8vo.    Paris,  1875.  5  parts  pub. 

Rolliston,  G.     Forms  of  Animal  Life      8vo      Oxford,  1870. 

Schafer,  E.  A.  A  Course  of  Practical  Histology.  8vo. 
London,  1877. 

Siebold  &  Stanuius.  Comparative  Anatomy  (the  Inverte- 
brata  translated  by  Burnett  [Boston,  1851],  the  rest  in  German 
and  Frenrh  editions.) 

Strieker  S.  Handbook  of  Human  and  Comparative  Histol- 
ogy. 8vo.  N.  Y.,  1872. 

Tulk  &  Henfrey.  Anatomical  Manipulation.  12mo.  Lond  1844. 


CHAPTER  VII. 


RECIPES,    FORMULAE    AND   USEFUL   HINTS. 

Ammonia  carmine. 

Pulverized  carmine  15  grains. 

Aqua  ammonia  (strong)  40  drops. 
Absolute  alcohol  I  oz. 

Glycerine  2  oz. 

Distilled  water  2  oz. 

Put  the  carmine  in  a  test  tube.     Pour  in  the  ammonia,  boil  a  few 
seconds  and  set  the  whole  aside  for  a  day  to  allow  the  superfluous  am- 
monia to  evaporate.     Add  the  mixed  glycerine  and  water,  then  the  al- 
cohol and  filter. 
Borax  carmine. 

Pulverized  carmine  15  grains. 

Saturated  aqueous  solution  of  borax         15  fl.  dr. 
Mix  and  add  absolute  alcohol  15  fl.  dr. 

Filter  and  collect  the  crystals  when  dry.     Dissolve  nine  grains  of  the 
crystals  in  one  ounce  of  distilled  water. 

Picrocarminate  of  ammonia  (Picrocarmine). 

Make  a  strong   solution  of  carmine  in   ammonia  and  water,  and  a 
saturated  solution  of  picric  acid  in  water.     Mix  the  acid  solution  with 
the  carmine  until  the  ammonia  is  just  neutralized.     Then  filter. 
Hcematoxylin. 

Rub  together  in  a  mortar  one  part  extract  of  logwood  and  three  parts 
pulverized  alum  (by  measure)  and  afterward  add  enough  water  to  dis- 

(136) 


136  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

solve  only  a  portion  of  the  resulting  powder.     Let  the  solution  stand 
several  days  until  it  becomes  saturated  and  assumes  a  dark  violet  color. 
If  still  too  red  add  more  alum.     Then  filter  and  dilute  with  one-fourth 
of  seventy-five  per  cent,  alcohol. 
Hcematoxylin  (No.  2). 

Ground  Campeachy  wood  I  oz. 

Pulverized  alum  2  oz. 

Mix  and  triturate  in  a  mortar  for  twenty  minutes;  then  add  two 
ounces  of  hot  distilled  water,  and  let  the  whole  stand  a  couple  of  days. 
Filter  and  add  to  each  ounce  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  ordinary  alco- 
hol. After  standing  twenty-four  hours  more,  filter  again  to  remove  the 
precipitated  alum.  This  will  keep  two  months  in  a  well  stoppered  vial. 
Hcematoxylin.  (No.  3). 

Hsematoxylin  crystals  35  parts. 

Absolute  alcohol  1000  parts. 

Water  (distilled)  3000  parts. 

Alum  10  parts. 

Dissolve  the  haematoxylin  in  the  alcohol,  the  alum  in  the  water  and 
mix.     The  mixture  is  purple  at  first,  but  gradually  turns  blue.     It  can- 
however  be  used  at  once  after  filtering. 
Ilcematoxylin  (Kleinenberg's  Method). 

Make  a  saturated  solution  of  crystallized  chloride  of  calcium  in  70 
per  cent,  alcohol,  and  add  alum  until  no  more  will  be  dissolved.  This 
is  the  first  solution;  the  second  is  a  saturated  solution  of  alum  in  70  per 
cent,  alcohol.  Mix  these  two  solutions  in  the  proportions  one  of  the 
first  to  eight  of  the  second.  Then  to  the  mixture  add  a  few  drops  of  a 
saturated  solution  of  crystallized  hsematoxylin  in  absolute  alcohol. 

Prey's  Fuschine  solution. 

Crystallized  fuschine  I  centigramme. 

Absolute  alcohol  15-20  drops. 

Distilled  water  15  cu.  centimetres. 

This,  though  a  useful  staining  medium,  possesses  the  disadvantage  that 
it  cannot  be  used  where  the  tissue  is  to  be  mounted  in  balsam. 


RECIPES,    FORMULAE   AND   USEFUL   HINTS.  137 

Eosin  andfuschine  (aniline  colors)  are  used  in  a  two  per  cent,  aque- 
ous solution  but  have  a  tendency  to  stain  all  parts  equally.  The  method 
of  operation  is  similar  to  that  with  carmine. 

Nitrate  of  silver  is  used  for  differentiating  the  walls  of  cells.  The  ob- 
ject is  placed  for  a  few  moments  in  a  solution  made  of  nitrate  of  silver, 
one  part,  distilled  water,  500  parts,  then  washed  in  distilled  water  and 
exposed  to  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  It  is  then  mounted  as  may  be 
desired  and  shows  the  cell  walls  black,  and  in  many  cases  this  is  the 
only  way  in  which  they  can  be  seen  at  all. 

Osmic  acid,  in  one-tenth  per  cent,  solution,  is  useful  fo  studying 
nerves  and  fatty  tissues  as  it  stains  them  black.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  in  using  osmic  acid  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  poisonous  substances 
known,  and  its  vapor  badly  affects  the  eyes  and  nasal  passages. 

Chloride  of  gold  is  also  of  value  in  studying  the  histology  of  the 
nerves.  Sections  are  first  placed  from  five  to  seven  minutes  in  a  one 
half  per  cent,  solution  of  the  chloride,  then  soaked  in  distilled  water 
several  hours,  next  placed  in  water  acidulated  with  lactic  acid  to  reduce 
the  chloride,  and  after  the  proper  color  (a  dark  purple)  is  obtained,  the 
specimens  are  washed  with  distilled  water  and  soaked  in  alcohol  and 
mounted  as  may  be  desired. 

Moleschott's  acetic  acid  and  alcohol  (strong). 

Strong  acetic  acid  (sp.  gr.  1 . 070)  i  part. 

Strong  alcohol  I  part. 

Distilled  water  2  parts. 

This  hardens  many  organs,  makes  connective  tissue  transparent  and 
renders  albumen  distinct. 

Moleschott's  acetic  acid  (weak). 

Acetic  acid  (sp.  gr.  1.070)  I  part. 

Alcohol  25  parts. 

Distilled  water  50  parts. 

This  is  better  for  delicate  tissues  than  the  strong.  Besides  rendering 
connective  tissue  transparent,  acetic  acid  renders  the  nuclei  of  cells 
more  plainly  visible.  When  a  one  per  cent,  solution  of  acetic  acid  is 


138  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

mixed  with  about  one-third  its  bulk  of  ordinary  haematoxylin  solution, 
the  connective  tissue  corpuscles  are  stained  a  beautiful  purple. 
Muller's  Fluid. 

Sulphate  of  soda  I  part. 

Bichromate  of  potash  2  parts. 

Water  100  parts. 

Muller's  fluid  for  hardening  the  retina. 

Bichromate  of  potash  2<&  grammes. 

Sulphate  of  soda  I    gramme. 

Distilled  water  100     grammes. 

Besides   its  hardening  properties,  this  is  useful  for  preserving  glands, 

mucous  membranes  and  ciliated  cells. 

Bichromate  of  potash  for  macerating  specimens  is  used  in  a  ^  per 
cent,  aqueous  solution. 

Iodized  serum. 

Take  the  amniotic  fluid  of  a  cow  or  other  mammal,  add  a  crystal  or 
two  of  iodine  and  allow  it  to  stand  a  few  days,  with  frequent  agitation. 
Then  filter.  Any  other  serous  fluid  may  be  used.  Iodized  serum  seems 
to  macerate  tissues  and  at  the  same  time  to  preserve  the  original  form  of 
the  histological  elements.  The  iodine  tends  to  prevent  putrefaction 
and  at  the  same  time  renders  the  elements  of  the  tissue  firmer. 

Artificial  iodized  serum. 

Take  one  ounce  of  the  white  of  an  egg;  pick  out  the  chalazese  and 
mix  with  nine  ounces  of  water  and  fifty  grains  of  common  salt.  Then 
add  several  crystals  of  iodine. 

Neutral  salt  solution  is  a  £  per  cent,  solution  of  common  salt  in  dis- 
tilled water.  It  is  useful  in  studying  living  tissues  as  the  cells  do  not 
exhibit  such  marked  changes  as  when  pure  water  is  used. 

Glycerine  jelly. 

Cooper's  gelatine  I  oz. 

Best  glycerine  6  oz. 

Carbolic  acid  20  drops. 


RECIPES,    FORMULAE   AND   USEFUL   HINTS.  139 

Soak  the  gelatine  over  night  in  water;  in  the  morning  add  the 
swelled  gelatine  to  the  glycerine  and  carbolic  acid  heated  to  about  200° 
Fahr.  in  a  vrater  bath.  Continue  the  heating  several  hours  until  the 
water  is  all  expelled.  Then  filter  and  bottle.  The  filtering  is  difficult 
and  can  only  be  accomplished  by  the  aid  of  heat. 

Glycerine  jelly. 

The  original  method  of  making  this  is  as  follows :  Take  any  quan- 
tity of  gelatine  and  let  it  soak  several  hours  in  cold  water.  Pour  off 
the  superfluous  water  and  melt  the  soaked  gelatine  by  the  aid  of  heat. 
To  each  ounce  of  the  fluid  gelatine  add  one  drachm  of  alcohol  and 
mix  well.  Then  add  a  fluid  drachm  of  the  white  of  an  egg  and  mix 
well  while  the  gelatine  is  cool  but  still  fluid.  Now  boil  until  the  albu- 
men coagulates  and  the  gelatine  is  quite  clear.  Filter  through  fine 
flannel,  and  to  each  fluid  ounce  of  the  clarified  gelatine  add  six  fluid 
drachms  of  pure  glycerine  (Price's  is  the  best)  and  mix  well. 

Glycerine  and  gum. 

Dissolve  two  parts  by  weight  of  gum  arabic  in  two  parts  of  cold  water 
and  add  one  part  of  glycerine.  Mix  well  but  use  no  heat,  and  strain. 
Keep  in  a  tightly  stoppered  vial.  This  medium  has  the  advantage  in 
mounting,  that  no  heat  is  required,  while  it  becomes  solid  in  a  short 
time  after  mounting. 

Dr.  Lang's  method  of  studying  nervous  histology  of  the  Turbel- 
laria. 

50   parts  I  per  cent,  solution  of  Picrocarminate  of  ammonia. 

50   parts          2  per  cent,  aqueous  solution  of  eosin. 

Objects  are  hardened  in  alcohol  and  placed  in  this  solution  one-half 
to  four  days.  The  picric  acid  is  then  extracted  by  70  per  cent,  alcohol, 
and  the  specimens  washed  with  90  per  cent,  and  absolute  alcohol  as  long 
as  any  eosin  is  dissolved.  In  embedding  in  paraffine  a  copious  use  of 
creasote  is  recommended.  This  produces  in  sections  of  Dendroc&la, 
carmine  red  nuclei  and  nucleoli,  glands,  adipose  tissue,  while  all  other 
parts  are  eosin  red. 

Dr.  Treub,  in  studying  the  nuclei  of  plants,  first  killed  the  cells  by 


140 


NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 


absolute  alcohol;  then  placed  the  tissues  in  I  per.  cent  solution  of  picro- 
carminate  from  four  to  twelve  hours.  They  were  next  shaken  in  dis- 
tilled water  to  remove  the  picric  acid  and  placed  in  glycerine  and  water 
which  is  gradually  replaced  by  pure  glycerine  containing  I  per  cent, 
of  formic  acid.  By  this  proces  the  nuclei  are  stained  bright  red,  the 
rest  of  the  cell  being  uncolored. 

Goadby's  solution  for  preserving  specimens. 
No.  i.     Bay  salt  4  oz. 

Alum  2  oz. 

Corrosive  sublimate    2  grs. 
,   Rain  water  I  qt. 

No.  2.     Salt.  h  lb. 

White  arsenic          20  grs. 

Corrosive  sublimate  2  grs. 

Boiling  rain-water      I  qt. 
Arsenical  soap. 

BECOEURS. 

Camphor  5  oz. 

White  arsenic  2lbs. 

White  soap.  2  Ibs. 

Salts  of  tartar  12  oz. 

Powdered  chalk  4  oz. 

The  soap  is  melted  with  a  little  water  over  the  fire,  and  the  chalk  and 
tartar  added.  It  is  then  removed  from  the  fire  and  the  arsenic,  and 
lastly  the  camphor  mixed  with  a  little  alcohol  is  stirred  in.  The  paste 
is  then  packed  in  jars  and  labelled. 

Arsenical  soap. 

SWAINSON'S. 

White  arsenic  I  oz. 

White  soap  I  oz. 

Carbonate  of  potash  I  dr. 

Distilled  water  6  dr. 

Camphor  2  dr. 
This  composition  is  formed  in  cakes  like  ordinary  soap.        * 


RECIPES,    FORMULAE  AND   USEFUL  HINTS.  14! 

Arsenical  soap. 

SIMON'S. 

Soap  1 1  Ib. 

Alum  8  oz. 

Carbonate  of  potash  4  oz. 

Common  salt  4  oz. 

Powdered  chalk  8  oz. 

Powdered  camphor  2  oz. 

Water  I  pt. 
Melted  by  heat,  the  camphor  being  added  last. 

Arsenical  soap. 

LAURENT'S. 

Arsenite  of  potash  2  dr. 

Alum  2  dr. 

Powdered  camphor  2  dr. 

White  soap  £  oz. 

Alcohol  6  oz. 

The  first  two  placed  in  a  bottle  and  the  alcohol  poured  over  them. 
When  dissolved,  the  other  ingredients  are  added.  This  composition 
requires  to  be  tightly  corked. 

Bullock's  arsenical  powder. 

White  arsenic  I  Ib. 

Burnt  alum  I  Ib. 

Tanner's  bark  2  Ibs. 

Camphor  i  oz. 

Musk  £  oz. 

The  first  three  to  be  firmly  powdered  and  passed  through  a  sieve,  the 
others  then  to  be  added  and  the  whole  thoroughly  mixed. 

Corrosive  sublimate  solution. 

Dissolve  one  ounce  of  corrosive  sublimate  in  one  quart  of  alcohol  in 
a  glass  vessel.  This  solution  is  to  be  applied  with  a  string-wound  brush 
as  the  presence  of  metal  will  produce  a  discoloration. 


142  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

"Sugar"  for  moths. 

Ale  &  pint. 

Honey  £  lb. 

Sugar  4  lb. 

Rum  I  oz. 

Oil  of  bitter  almond  5  drops. 

The  ale  is  heated  and  the  sugar  and  honey  added.     When  cold  the 
rum  and  oil   of  almond,  having  been  previously  mixed  are  poured  in 
and  the  whole  thoroughly  stirred. 
"Sugar"  for  moths.    No.  2. 

A  thick  sugar  made   of  brown   sugar   with   a  small  quantity  of  rum. 
Dr.  Lcconte's  poison  for  insects. 

Saturated  alcoholic  solution  of  arsenic  8  fl.  oz. 
Strychnine  1 2  grs. 

Crystallized  carbolic  acid  i  dr. 

Heavy  benzine  and  alcohol  enough  to  make  one  quart. 
Heavy  benzine  should  be  used  (about  10-12  oz.),  as  lighter  will  not 
mix  with  alcohol.    The  benzine  should  be  tested  for  grease,  by  moistening 
paper  with  it.     If  all  greasy  appearance  does  not  disappear  on  drying 
it  should  be  rejected.     This  poison  is  to  be  applied  to  the  insects  in  the 
cabinet  by  an  atomizer. 
A  good  mucilage. 

Take  equal  parts  of  gum  arabic  and  gum  tragacanth,  swell  in  water 
and  then  dissolve  by  means  of  heat,  then  add  a^few  drops  of  carbolic 
acid  and  a  few  of  glycerine.  The  carbolic  acid  prevents  fermentation 
or  mould,  the  glycerine  keeps  it  from  cracking  or  scaling  off  when 
dry. 

Thick  flour  paste  added  to  common  glue  adheres  well  to  glass  as  also 
does  the  mucilage  made  of  gum  arabic  and  gum  tragacanth. 
"Electrical  Cement." 

Melt  together  ten  oz.  of  resin,  two  oz.  of  beeswax,  two  oz.  of  red 
ochre,  and  add  a  teaspoonful  of  plaster  of  Paris.  This  is  used  hot  for  ce- 
menting brass  or  wood  to  glass. 


RECIPES,   FORMULA  AND   USEFUL  HINTS.  143 

Peron's  Luting. 

Common  resin 
Red  ochre 
Yellow  wax 
Oil  of  turpentine 

First  melt  the  wax,  then  add  the  resin,  next  stir  in  the  ochre  and 
lastly  the  turpentine.  According  as  the  ochre  or  other  ingredients  pre- 
dominate, the  luting  will  be  brittle  or  elastic.  Great  care  should  be 
taken  that  the  mixture  does  not  take  fire  and  the  vessel  used  should  be 
capable  of  containing  at  least  three  times  the  quantity  made  at  one 
time. 

Grafting  wax. 

Melt  together  eight  oz.  resin,  three  of  beeswax  and  one  of  lard.  Run 
in  sticks.  It  improves  with  age. 

Black  ink. 

A  black  ink  is  frequently  desirable  and  is  almost  impossible  to  obtain 
in  the  stores.  A  good  ink  may  be  made  by  boiling  eight  oz.  of  pow- 
dered nut  galls  and  one  oz.  extract  of  logwood  in  three  quarts  of  water 
for  an  hour.  Strain  and  add  four  oz.  of  copperas  (sulphate  of  iron), 
three  oz.  of  gum  arabic  and  one  of  blue  vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper) ; 
let  it  stand  until  dissolved  and  strain  again.  A  few  cloves  will  keep 
it  from  moulding. 

Old  alcohol  which  has  been  discolored  by  specimens  can  be  cleaned 
by  filtering  through  animal  charcoal,  but  nothing  will  completely  remove 
disagreeable  odors  though  a  redistillation  will  sometimes  help  it. 
After  filtering,  the  spirit  should  be  brought  to  a  proper  strength  (to  be 
ascertained  by  the  hydrometer)  by  adding  new  alcohol. 
To  blacken  brass. 

It  is  occasionally  desirable  to  blacken  portions  of  instruments  as  stages 
of  microscopes,  etc.  This  may  be  done  by  cleaning  the  brass  of  all 
grease,  then  covering  with  a  solution  of  nitrate  of  copper  which  on  the 
application  of  heat  turns  the  surface  to  a  jet  black.  If  desirable,  it  may 
then  be  lacquered  by  applying  shellac  varnish  and  heating  slightly. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY, 


USEFUL  WORKS   OF  REFERENCE. 


THE  following  list  includes  only  such  works  as  will  aid  the 
student  in  arranging  and  identifying  his  collections,  all  mor- 
phological papers  being  purposely  omitted.  The  more  useful 
of  these  are  printed  in  full  face  type.  While  the  list  is  far 
from  perfect  it  is  hoped  that  it  will  prove  of  use  to  the 
zoologist. 

The  majority  of  the  titles  have  been  translated  either  in 
full  or  in  abstract,  but  the  language  in  which  the  article  is 
written  is  indicated  by  the  abbreviation  following  the  title. 
For  a  more  complete  list  of  papers,  students  should  refer  to 
the  various  special  bibliographies  quoted.  The  catalogues 
published  by  Friedlander  und  Sohn  of  Berlin  will  also  prove 
useful. 

All   Museums    should    possess    Dictionaries  of    French, 

German,  Latin,  Swedish,  Danish,  Spanish,  Italian,  Portuguese 

(147) 


148  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

and  Norse  languages  ;  as  many  important  works  are  published 
in  those  tongues. 

Other  necessary  works  are  : 

Agassiz  L.,  Nornenclator  Zoologicus,  4to,  Solduri,  1846-48. 

Marschall,  A.  I).,  Nomeuclator  Zoologicus,  8vo,  Wien,  1873  (a 
continuation  of  Agassiz's  work). 

A  large  Atlas  of  the  world. 

Lippincott's  complete  pronouncing  Gazetteer,  2  vols.,  8vo, 
Philadelphia,  1880. 

Scudder,  S.  H.,  Catalogues  of  Scientific  Serials  of  all  coun- 
tries, 8vo,  Cambridge,  1879. 

Royal  Society's  list  of  Scientific  Papers,  8  vols,  4to,  London, 
1868. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY. 

GENERAL  ZOOLOGY. 

Bonaparte,  C.  S.  Iconografia  della  Fauna  Italica.  3vols.,fol. 
Rome,  1832-41.  (Ital.) 

Brehm,  A.  E.  Thierleben  (Animal  life,  a  general  account 
of  the  Animal  Kingdom).  10  vols.,  8vo.  Leipzig,  1868-78. 
(Ger.) 

Bronn  und  Gerstaecker.  Klassen  und  Ordmmg  der 
Thierreich.  8vo.  Many  plates.  Leipzig,  1863—  (Ger.) 

Cooper,  Suckley  and  Gibbs.  Zoology  in  vol.  xn,  Reports 
Pacific  R.  R.  Survey.  4to.  Washington,  1860.  (Separate  as 
Natural  History  of  Washington  Territory). 

Cuvier  Kegne  Animal.  Edition  by  Audouin,  Blanchard, 
Deshayes,  Milne  Edwards,  Valenciennes,  etc.  22  vols.,  4to,  903 
pis.  Paris,  1849,  et  seq. 

Donovan,  E.     Naturalists' Repository.     5  vols.    London,  1834. 

Eydoux  et  Gervais.  Voyage  of  the  Favorite.  Paris,  1839. 
(Fr.) 

Eydoux  et  Souleyet.  Voyage  of  the  Bonite.  2  vols.,.8vo, 
and  folio  Atlas.  Paris,  1841-52.  (Fr.) 

Fubricius,  O       Fauna  Groenlanclica.     8vo.     Leipzig,  1780. 

Gay,  C.  History  of  Chili.  5  vols.,  8vo,  4to  plates.  Paris, 
1847.  (Sp.)  Zoology  by  Gay,  Nicollet,  Blanchard,  etc. 

(149) 


150  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

Graelin.  Sy sterna  Naturae.  3  vols.,  8vo.  Leipzig,  1788-93. 
(Lat.) 

Gray,  J.  E.  Voyage  of  H.  M.  S.  Sulphur.  4to.  London, 
1843-45.  Illustrations  of  Indian  Zoology.  20  pts.,  4to.  Lon- 
don, 18JO-34. 

Griffith  and  Henfrey.  The  Micrographic  Dictionary. 
8vo.  London.  3  edit.,  1871-75. 

Guerin-Meneville.  Iconographie  du  Regne  Animal. 
3  vols.,  8vo.  450  pis.  Paris,  1829-44.  (Fr.) 

Harlan,  R.,  Medical  and  Physical  Researches.  8vo.  Phila- 
delphia, 1835. 

Van  der  Hoeven.  Handbook  of  Zoology,  translated 
by  Wm.  Clark.  2  vols.,  8vo.  London,  1856-58. 

Jacquemont.  Voyage  to  India.  4  vols.,  4to.  fol.  Atlas,  229 
pis.  Paris,  1841-44.  (Fr.) 

Jardine,  W.  Naturalists' Library.  40  vols.,  12mo.  London, 
1834-43. 

Leach,  W.  E.  Zoological  Miscellany.  3  vols.,  8vo.  Many 
pis.  London,  1814-17. 

Lesson  et  Garnot.  Voyage  of  the  Coquille.  2  vols.,  4to. 
157  folio  plates.  Paris,  182G-30.  (Fr.) 

Linnaeus,  C.  Systema  Naturae.  Edit,  x,  2  vols.,  8vo.  1758-9. 
Edit,  xii,  3  vols.,  8vo.  17G5.  (Lat.) 

Miiller,  O.  F.  Zoologia  Danica.  4  vols.  Copenhagen,  1788- 
180G.  (Lat.) 

Nicholson,  H.  A.  Advanced  Textbook  of  Zoology. 
8vo.  London,  1870. 

Packard,  A.  S.,  jr.     Zoology.     12mo.     N.  Y.,  1879. 

Pagenstecher,  A.  General  Zoology.  8vo.  Berlin,  1875. 
(Ger.) 

Pallas,  P.  S.     Miscellanea  Zoologica,     4to.     17G6.     (Lat.) 

Peters,  Cams  und  Gerstaecker.  Handbuch  der  Zo- 
ologie.  2  vols.,  8vo.  Leipzig,  1863-68.  (An  indispensable 
work.  Ger.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  151 

Quoy  et  Gaimard.  Voyage  of  the  Astrolabe.  4  vols.,  8vo. 
192  folio  plates.  Paris,  1830-33.  (Fr.) 

Raman  de  la  Sagra.  History  of  Cuba,  13  vols.,  8vo.  250  fol. 
pis.  Madrid  et  Paris,  1849-61.  (Fr.  and  Spa.) 

Richardson,  J.  Fauna  Boreali  Americana?.  4to.  London, 
1829.  Report  on  North  American  Zoology  (6th  Rep.  Brit.  Assoc. 
Adv.  Sci.,  1737). 

Record  of  Zoological  Literature.  8vo.  London,  1865. 
(yearly). 

Risso.  Natural  History  of  Central  Europe.  5  vols.  8vo. 
1828.  (Fr.) 

Say,  T.  Zoology  in  Long's  Expedition  to  Rocky  Mts.  2  vols. 
fol.  Ley  den,  1839-45. 

Schlegel,  Mtiller  et  De  Haan.  Fauna  of  the  Dutch  East  Indies. 
8vo.  Philadelphia,  1823. 

Schmarda,  L.  K.  Zoologie.  2  vols.,  8vo.  Vienna,  1877-78. 
(Ger.) 

Shaw,  G.     General  Zoology.     14vols.,8vo.     London,  1809-26. 

Shaw  and  Nodder.  Naturalists'  Miscellany.  24  vols.,  8vo. 
1000  pis.  London,  1789-1814. 

Siebold,  Schlegel  et  De  Haan.  Fauna  Japonica.  5  vols.,  fol. 
1838-50.  (Fr.  and  Lat.) 

Sowerby,  J.  British  Miscellany.  4  vols.,  8vo.  London, 
1804-06. 

Tenney,  S.    Manual  of  Zoology.    8vo.    N.  Y.,  1874. 

Turton,  W.  General  System  of  Nature.  7  vols.,  8vo.  Lon- 
don, 1806. 

VERTEBRATA. 

Coues  and  Yarrow.  Zoology.  Vol.  5  of  Reports  of  Wheeler's 
Survey.  4to.  Washington,  1875. 

Fitzinger.  Atlas  of  Natural  History  of  the  Vertebrates.  4 
pts.,  4to.  474  pis.  Vienna,  1856-64.  (Ger.) 


52  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

Gervais,  P.  New  or  rare  animals  of  Castlenau's  expedition 
to  South  America.  Paris,  18G5.  (Fr.) 

Godman,  J.  I.  American  Natural  History.  3  vols.,  8vo,  2nd 
edit.  Phila.,  1831. 

Huxley  and  Hawkins  Elementary  Atlas  of  Compar- 
ative Osteology.  London,  1864. 

Jordan,  D.  S.  Manual  of  the  Vertebrata  of  the 
Northern  United  States,  oust  of  the  Mississippi  and  north 
of  North  Carolina  and  Tennessee,  exclusive  of  Marine  species. 
8vo.  2  edit.  Chicago.  1878. 

List  of  Vertebrates  in  the  Gardens  of  the  Zoological  Society 
of  London.  8vo.  6th  edit.,  1877. 

Middendorff,  A.  T.  von.  Siberian  Journeys.  Vertebrata. 
4to.  St.  Petersburg,  1853.  (Ger.) 

Owen,  R.  Odontography  or  Comparative  Anatomy 
Of  the  Teeth.  2  vols.,  8vo.  London,  1840-45.  Description 
of  the  osteological  series  in  the  Museum  of  the  Royal  College 
of  Surgeons  of  England.  2  vols.  London,  1853. 

Panclar  and  d'Alton.  Comparative  Osteology.  13  pts.  Rome, 
1821-31.  (Ger.) 

Riippell,  E.  Zoological  atlas  of  a  Journey  in  North  Africa. 
5  parts,  fol.  Franckfurt,  1826-31.  (Ger.) 

Wied,  Neuwied,  Prince  Maxmlllian.  Illustrations  of  the  nat- 
ural History  of  Brazil,  fol.  Weimar,  1822-31.  (Ger.) 

MAMMALIA. 

(For  a  more  complete  list  see  Coues  and  Allen,  Monographs 
Rodentia.) 

Allen,  H.  Monograph  of  the  Bats  of  North  America. 
(Smithsonian  Misc.  Collections,  vol.  vii).  8vo.  Washington, 
1874. 

Allen,  J.  A.     Catalogue  of  the  Mammals  of  Massachusetts. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  153 

(Bulletin  Museum  Comp.  Zool.  i.)     8vo.     Cambridge,  1869. 

Allen,  J.  A.  Catalogue  of  mammals  and  winter  birds  of  Flor- 
ida. (Bull.  M.  C.  Z.  ii.)  8vo.  Cambridge,  1871. 

Allen,  J.  A.  The  species  of  Bassaris.  (Bulletin,  U.  S.  Geol. 
Sui-v.,  v.)  8vo.  Washington,  1879. 

Allen  and  Bryant.  On  the  Otariida3  or  eared  Seals  of  the 
North  Pacific.  (B.  M.  C.  Z.  ii.)  8vo.  Cambridge  1870. 

Audubon  and  Bachman.  The  Viviparous  Quadru- 
peds of  North  America.  3vols.,8vo.  New  York,  1846-54. 

Baird,  S.  P.  Mammalia  in  Rep.  U.  S.  Pacific  R.  R.  Sur- 
veys, vols.  viii-x.  4to.  Washington,  1857-59. 

Baird,  S.  F.  Mammalia  in  Rep.  U.  S.  and  Mex.  Boun- 
dary Survey.  4to.  Washington,  1859.  (The  two  above  are 
bound  together  under  the  title,  Mammals  of  North  America. 
Washington,  1859). 

Baird,  S,  F.  Catalogue  of  North  American  Mammalia.  4to. 
Washington,  1857. 

Bell,  T.  History  of  British  Quadrupeds  including  the  Cetacea. 
1  vol.,  8vo.  London,  1837.  Another  edition  edited  by  Thomes 
and  Alston,  1874. 

Buffon.  Natural  History  of  Apes  and  Quadrupeds.  15  vols., 
8vo.  Paris,  1800.  (Fr.) 

Burmeister,  H.  Systematic  Review  of  Brazilian  Animals. 
1  vol.,  8vo.  Berlin,  1854.  (Ger.) 

Blainville,  H.  M.  D.  de.  Osteography  or  Compara- 
tive Iconography  of  the  Skeleton  and  Teeth  of  recent 
and  fossil  Mammalia.  Text,  4  vols.,  4to,  plates.  4  vols., 
folio.  Paris,  1839-64.  (Fr.) 

Blanford,  W.  T.  Mammalia  of  Second  Yarkand  Mission,  Cal- 
cutta, 1878. 

Brandt.  Contributions  to  a  better  knowledge  of  the  Russian 
Mammalia.  (Mem.  Acad.  St.  Petersburg,  ix,  1855.)  4to.  (Gcr.) 

Cassin,  J.  Mammals  and  Birds  of  the  U.  S.  Exploring  Expe- 
dition. 4to.  folio  atlas.  Phila.,  1858. 


154  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

Cope,  E.  D.     Contributions  to  the  History  of  the  Cetacea. 

Coues,  E.  Pur  Bearing  Animals.  (Misc.  Pub.  U.  S. 
Geol.  Surv.  8vo.  Washington,  1877. 

Coues,  E.  Papers  in  Proceedings,  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Phil., 
Bulletin  U.  S.  Geol.  Surv  ,  etc. 

Coues  and  Allen.  Monographs  of  the  Worth  Ameri- 
can Rodentia.  (Final  Reports  of  U.  S.  Geol.  Survey,  vol.  xi/j 
4to.  Washington,  1877. 

DeKay,  J.  E.  Zoology  of  New  York.  Pt.  I,  Mammalia.  4to. 
Albany,  1842. 

Desmarest,  A.  G.  Mammalogy,  or  description  of 
the  species  of  Mammals.  2  vols.,  4to.  Paris,  1820-22. 
Also  in  Encyclopedic  Methodiqne,  vol.  182.  (Fr.) 

Dobson,  G.  E.  Catalogue  of  the  Cheiroptera  in  the  British 
Museum.  8vo.  London,  1878. 

Emmons,  E.  Report  on  the  Quadrupeds  of  Massachusetts. 
8vo.  Cambridge,  1840. 

Erxleben,  J.  C.  System  of  the  Animal  Kingdom.  Pt.  I  Mam- 
malia. 8vo.  Leipzig,  1777.  (Lat.) 

Eschricht,  Reinhardt  and  Lilljeborg.  Memoirs  on  the  Ceta- 
cea. Edited  by  W.  II.  Flower  (Ray  Society.)  Fo\\o.  London, 
1866. 

Fitzinger,  L.  J.  Critical  Review  of  the  Cheiroptera.  8vo. 
Vienna,  1869-71.  (Ger.) 

Flower,  W.  H.  Introduction  to  the  Osteology  of  the  Mam- 
malia. 8vo.  Lond.,  1870.  2nd  edit.,  Lond.,  1877. 

GeofFroy  St.  Hilaire,  I.  Description  of  new  or  little  known 
monkeys.  3  parts,  4to.  Paris,  1841-51.  (Fr.) 

Geoffroy.  Mammals  and  Birds  in  Jacquemont's  Voyage  to 
the  East  Indies.  4to.  Paris,  1842-3.  (Fr.) 

Geoffroy.  Voyage  of  the  Venus  Around  the  World  Paris, 
1855.  (Fr.) 

Geoffroy  St.  Hilaire  and  Cuvier.  Natural  History 
of  Mammals.  3  vols  ,  folio.  Paris,  1819-29.  (Fr.) 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  1 55 

Gervais,  P.  Natural  History  of  Mammals.  2  vols.,  8vo. 
Paris,  1854-55.  (Fr.) 

Giebel,  C.  G.  Natural  History  of  the  Animal  Kingdom.  Vol. 
1,  Mammals.  1  vol.  4to.  Leipzig,  1859.  (Ger.) 

Gray,  J.  E.  Lists  and  Catalogues  of  Mammalia  in 
the  British  Museum.  (Several  volumes  under  distinct  titles.) 
1843-74. 

Guerin,  R.  Zoological  and  Paleontological  studies  of  the 
Cetacea.  4t  >.  Paris,  1874.  (Fr.) 

Harlan,  R.  Fauna  Americana.  Descriptions  of  the  Mammalia 
of  North  America.  1  vol.,  8vo.  Philadelphia,  1825. 

Horsfleld,  T.  Zoological  researches  in  Java.  4to.  London, 
1824. 

Jardine,  Sir  W.  Naturalists'  Library.  Mammalia  (by  Jardine, 
Waterhouse,  Macgillivray  and  others).  13  vols.,  8vo.  Edin- 
burg,  1833-42. 

Jerdon,  T.  C.     The  Mammals  of  India.     8vo.     London,  1874. 

Kennerly,  C.  B.  Mammals  of  Upper  California  in  Pacific  R. 
R.  Survey,  vol.  x,  4to.  Washington,  18.">9. 

Locke.  Mammals  and  Birds  of  the  Scientific  exploration  of 
Algiers.  4  vols.,  4to.  Paris,  1867.  (Fr.) 

Milne  Edwards,  H.  et  A.  Researches  in  the  Natural  History 
of  the  Mammalia.  1  vol.,  4to.  105  Plates.  Paris,  1868-74. 
(Fr.) 

Peters,  W.  Mammalia  of  Travels  in  Mozambique.  1  vol., 
fol.  Berlin,  1852.  (Ger.) 

Pucheran.  Monograph  of  the  Genus  Cervis.  4to  Paris, 
1852. 

Reichenbach,  H.  G.  L.  Complete  Natural  History  of  the 
Apes.  4to.  Dresden,  1863.  (Ger.) 

Richardson,  J.  Quadrupeds  of  the  Fauna  of  Northern  Amer- 
ica. 4to.  London,  1829-36. 


i56  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

Richardson,  J.  Mammals  of  Beechey's  Voyage.  4to.  Lon- 
don, 1839. 

Sagra  and  d'Orbigny.  Mammals  and  Birds  in  de  Sagra's  His- 
tory of  Cuba.  Paris,  1840.  (Fr.) 

Scammon,  C.  M.  The  Marine  Mammals  of  the  North  West- 
ern Coast  of  North  America.  8vo.  San  Francisco,  1873. 

Schinz,  H.  R.  Illustrations  and  Natural  History  of 
the  Mammalia.  2vol.,fol.  Zurich,  1827.  (Ger.) 

Schinz,  H.  R.  Monographs  of  the  Mammalia.  4to. 
Zurich,  1843-56.  (Ger.) 

Schlegel,  H.     Monograph  of  the  Apes.     Ley  den,  1876.     (Fr.) 

Schlegel  and  Pollen.  Investigation  of  the  Mammals  and  Birds 
of  Madagascar.  Folio.  Leyden,  1868.  (Fr.) 

Schreber,  J.  C.  D.  The  Mammalia  in  pictures  from  Nature 
with  descriptions  continued  by  J.  A.  Wagner,  1775-92,  1840-55. 

Siebold,  Temminck  and  Schlegel.  Mammalia  of  the  Fauna 
Japonica.  fol.  Leyden,  1842.  (Fr.) 

Slack,  J.  H.  Monograph  of  the  Prehensile  tailed  Apes. 
(Proc.  Acad.  Nat.  Sci.,  Phila.,  1862).  8vo. 

Temminck,  C.  J.  Monograph  of  the  Mammalia.  2  vols.,  4to. 
Paris  and  Leyden,  1827-41.  (Fr.) 

Tschudi,  J.  J.  Investigations  of  the  Peruvian  Fauna.  Mam- 
mals and  Reptiles.  4to.  St.  Gallen,  1844-46.  (Ger.) 

Waterhouse,  G.  R.  Natural  History  of  the  Mammalia.  2 
vols.,  8vo.  London,  1846-48. 


BIRDS. 

Allen,  J.  A.  Catalogue  of  Mammals  and  winter  Birds  of  East- 
ern Florida.  (Bulletin  Mus.  Comp.  Zool.,  ii,  1871.) 

Audubon,  J.  J.  Ornithological  Biography,  5  vols., 
8vo.  Edinburg,  1831-39. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY.  I S  7 

Audubon,  J.  J.    Birds    of  America    from    original 

drawings.     5  vols.,  fol.    London,  1827-38. 

Audubon,  J.  J.  Birds  of  America,  from  drawings 
made  in  the  U.  S.  and  their  Territories.  7  vols.,  8vo. 
N.  Y.,  1840-44. 

Baird,  S.  F.     Birds  in  Stansbury's  Salt  Lake.     8vo.     1853 

Baird,  S.  F.  Birds  in  Rep.  Mexican  Boundary  Sur- 
vey. 4lo.  Washington,  1859. 

Baird,  S.  F.  Catalogue  of  North  American  Birds.  (Smith- 
sonian Inst.  Misc.  Coll.,  ii,  1850). 

Baird,  S.  F.  Birds,  vol.  ix  of  Report  Pacific  Railroad 
Survey.  4  to.  Washington,  1859. 

Baird,  S.  F.  Review  of  American  Birds  in  the  Smith- 
sonian Museum.  (S.  I.  Misc.  Coll.  xii).  8vo  Washington, 
1864. 

Baird,  Brewer  and  Ridgway.  A  History  of  North 
American  Birds.  (Land  Birds  complete,  3  vols.) 

Baird,  Cassin  and  Lawrence.  The  Birds  of  North 
America.  4to.  Philadelphia,  1860. 

Bannister,  W.  H.  Classification  of  the  American  Anserinae 
(Proc.  Phila.  Acad.  1870). 

Barrows,  W.  B.  Catalogue  of  the  Alcidse  in  the  Collection  of 
the  Boston  Soc.  Nat.  Hist.  (Proc.  Bost.  Soc.  xix,  877). 

Blanford,  W.  T.  Monograph  of  the  genus  Saxicola.  Lon- 
don, 1870 

Blyth,  E.  Catalogue  of  Birds  in  the  Museum  of  the  Asiatic 
Society.  8vo.  Calcutta,  1849.  • 

Bonaparte,  C.  S.  American  Ornithology  or  Nat. 
Hist,  of  Birds  of  North  America,  not  given  by  Wilson. 
4vols,4to.  N.  Y.,  1825-33. 

Bonaparte,  C  S.  Genera  of  N.  A.  Birds  and  a  synopsis  of 
those  found  in  the  U.  S.  (Annals  N.  Y.  Lyceum  Nat.  Hist  ii, 
1826.)  Also  separate,  1828. 


*58  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

Bonaparte,  C.  S.  Monographs  of  the  Shrikes,  Parroquets, 
Birds  of  Prey  and  Gulls.  Revue  et  Magazin  de  Zoologie, 
1853-55.  (Fr.) 

Bonaparte  C.  S.  Conspectus  of  the  Genera  of  Birds  edited 
by  Finsch.  Leyden,  1850-65.  2  vols.,  8vo.  (Lat.) 

Bonaparte,  C.  S.  Iconography  of  the  Pigeons,  fol.  Paris, 
1857.  (Fr.) 

Bonaparte  and  Schlegel.  Monograph  of  the  Cross  Bills. 
4to.  Leyden,  1850.  (Ger.) 

Boucard,  A.  Catalogue  of  all  described  Birds.  8vo. 
London,  1876. 

Brehm,  C.  L.  Handbook  of  the  Birds  of  Europe.  8vo. 
Ilmenau,  1831.  (Ger.) 

Brewer,  T.  W.  North  American  Oology.  Raptores 
and  Fissirostres.  (Smithsonian  Contrib.  to  Knowl.  xi).  4to. 
Washington,  1857. 

Buffon.  Natural  History  of  Birds.  10  vols.,  4to.  1008  Pis. 
Paris,  1770-86.  (Fr.) 

Burmeister,  H.  Systematic  Review  of  Brazilian  Animals. 
8vo.  Berlin,  1854.  (Ger  ) 

Cassin,  J.  Mammals  and  Birds  of  the  U.  S.  Exploring  Ex- 
pedition. 4to.  atlas  folio.  Phila.,  1858. 

Cassin,  J.  Illustrations  of  the  Birds  of  California,  Texas, 
Oregon,  British  and  Russian  America.  (1st  series  50  pis).  4to. 
Phila.,  1853-55. 

Cooper  and  Baird.  Ornithology  of  California,  vol.  i.  Lam] 
Birds.  4to.  (Pub.  Cal.  Geol.  Survey).  San  Francisco,  1873. 

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i7°  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

Gill,  Theodore.  Catalogue  of  Fishes  of  the  East  Coast  of 
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Allman,  G.  J.  Monograph  of  the  Gymnoblastic  or 
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Van  Beneden,  P.  J.  Polyps  of  Belgium.  4to.  19  pis.  Brus- 
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Clark,  H.  E.  Prodrome  of  Lucernaria.  (Jour.  Bost.  Socy. 
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220  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

Duchassaing  et  Michelotti.      Corals  of  the  Antilles.      2  pts. 
4to.  21  pis.  Tunn,  1860-64.     (Fr.) 

Esper,  E.  J.    Die  Pflanzenthiere.  (Zoophyta.)  3  pts.  and  suppl. 
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Forbes,  E.      History  of  British  Starfishes  and  other  Echino- 
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Forbes,  E.     Monograph  of  British  Naked-eyed  Medusa?.    (Ray 
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Gegenbaur,  C.      Contributions  to  a  better  knowledge  of  the 
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Gosse,  P.  H.     Actinologia  Brittanica.     (British  Sea  Anemo- 
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Gray,  J.  E.     Catalogues  of  Echinida,   Starfishes,  Sea  Pens 
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Gray,  J.    E.      Synopsis  of  the  Star  Fish  in  British  Museum. 
4to.  16  pis.  London,  1867. 

Greene,   J.   R.       Manual  of  the   Coelenterata.    8vo.  London, 
1869. 

Haeckel,  E.      Contributions  to  Nat.  Hist,  of  Hydromedusae. 
8vo.  Leipzig,  1865. 

Haeckel,  E.     System  der  Medusen.    4to,  many  plates. 
1879.      (Ger.) 

Hincks,  T.    Natural  History  of  British  Hydroid  Zoo- 
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Hulton,  F.  W.     Catalogue  New  Zealand  Echinodermata.   8vo. 
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Huxley,  T.  H.    Oceanic  Hydrozoa.    (Ray  Soc.)  4to.  12 
pis.  London,  1859. 

Johnston,   G.     History  of  British  Zoophytes.     8vo. 
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Kolliker,  A.     Siphonophora  of  Messina,     fol.  12  pi.  Leipzig, 
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222 


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•   BIBLIOGRAPHY.  223 

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224  NATURALISTS'  ASSISTANT. 

4r 

Hyatt,  A.  Revision  of  North  American  Poriferse. 
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Leidy,  J.  Fresh  Water  Rhizopoda  of  North  Amer- 
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Williamson.     Monograph  Recent  Foraminifera.     (Ray  Socy.) 

fol.     London,  1857. 


INDEX. 


PAGK 

PAGE 

Aberration   .... 

82 

Breeding  cage     . 

31 

Acetic  acid           .       .       . 

137 

Breeding  larvae    . 

31 

Adjustment  of  microscope 

85 

Bullock's  arsenical    pow- 

Adjustment for  cover-glass 

98 

der-      

141 

Alcohol 

41 

Bulls  eye      .... 

90 

Alcoholic  specimens          . 

3 

Butterfly  nets 

19 

Ammonia  carhiins      . 

135 

Butterfly  triangles 

25 

Angle  of  aperture 

98 

Arsenical  powdor       . 

141 

Cabinets  for  bottles    . 

74 

Argentic  nitrate 

137 

Camera  lucida     . 

91,95) 

Arsenical  soap     . 

140 

Card  catalogues 

51 

Artificial  serur.i 

138 

Care  of  microscope    . 

96 

Auric  chloride     . 

37 

Caring  for  collections 

40 

Carmine 

l.°,5 

B&tr&chiji      •        •        •        • 

12 

Cases     .       . 

63,  (!8 

Bausch  and  Lomb  micro- 

Cases for  microscopic 

scope          .... 

95 

slides         .... 

75 

Beam  trawl 

37 

Cases  for  small  bottles      . 

73 

"Reek's  microscopes   . 

95 

Catalogues  .... 

50 

Beating  for  insects     . 

20 

Cement                               , 

142 

Bccoeur's   arpenical    soap 

140 

Chairs   

106 

Bibliography 

149 

Chloride  of  gold 

137 

Bichromate  of  potash 

38 

Chromic  acid 

125 

Birdlime      .... 

2,  3 

Clams,  disserting 

118 

Birds      

6 

Coarse  adjustment  of  mi- 

Blackening brass 

143 

croscope    .... 

85 

Blackening  wax 

57 

Coddington  lens 

82 

Black  ink                     .       , 

143 

Collecting  and  preserving, 

Blow  gun      .       .       .       , 

2 

works  on  . 

1 

Borax  carmine    .       .       . 

135 

Collecting  batrachia  . 

12 

Boring  glass        .       . 

57 

Collecting  equipment 

Si 

Bottom  collecting       .       . 

35 

Collecting  insects 

18 

Bottles          .... 

55 

Collecting  net 

18 

Brackets  for  shelves 

70 

Collecting  reptiles 

12 

Brass,  to  blacken 

1,  3 

Collecting  umbrella   . 

20 

(225) 

226 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Collecting  vertebrates 

2 

Gasteropoda 

118 

College  museums 

64 

Gelatine  injections 

121 

Colors;  conventional 

59 

Generic  names    .        .        , 

46 

Compound  microscope 

84 

Glass,  to  bore 

57 

CompressArium 

101 

Glass  stages 

8!) 

Condenser    .       ... 

90 

Glycerine  and  gum 

139 

Conventional  colors   . 

59,  110 

Glycerine  jelly    . 

121,  138 

Corrosive  sublimate   . 

141 

Goadby's  solutions     • 

140 

Craig  microscope 

92 

Gold  chloride 

137 

Crustacea 

118 

Grafting  wax 

54,  143 

Cyanide  bottle 

20 

Gum                             .       . 

48 

Cyanide  of  potassium 

20 

Gum  arabic 

127 

Gumming  insects 

23 

Destroying  pigment  . 
Diaphragm   .... 

125 

90 

Haematoxylin 

135 

Dissecting    .... 

115 

Hardening  tissues 

12.) 

Dissecting  insects,  etc. 
Dissecting  microscopes    . 

116 
84 

Hartnack  microscopes 
Hartnack  objectives  . 

94 

89 

Dissecting  tank   . 

115 

-Heliotype     . 

110 

Dissections  preserved 

56 

High  angle  lenses 

98 

Dissolving  paraffine   . 

129 

"Homoeopathic"    collec- 

Drawing      .... 

109 

tions 

73 

Drawtube     .... 

85 

Homoeopathic  vials    . 

5(> 

Dredging      .       ... 

35 

Horizontal  cases 

71 

Huygenian  oculars     . 

86 

Eggs      ..... 

11 

Egg  drill       .... 
Eggs  exhibiting  . 
Elder  pith     .... 

11 

52 
128 

Ichneumon  parasites  . 
Illustrations 
Imbedding    . 

33 
109 
125,  127 

Electrical  cement 
Eosin 

142 

Imbedding  tray  . 
Immersion  lenses 

87,97 

Equipment,  collecting 
Exhibition  cases  . 

34 
69 

India  ink       . 
Inflating  larvae     . 

46 
27 

Exhibiting  birds'  eggs 

52 

Inflating  oven 
Injecting       . 

28 
120 

Injecting  media 

121 

Fine  adjustment  of  microscope  85 

Ink          

46,  143 

Fishes    

13 

Ink  for  labels 

46 

Focal  length  of  objectives 

87 

Insects          . 

18 

Focussing  the  microscope 

97 

Insect  cases 

72 

Formulae       .        .        .        . 

135 

Insect  forceps 

24 

Freezing  microtome  . 

129 

Insect  labels 

49 

Freezing  tissues  .       .       . 

129 

Insect  localities  . 

22 

Frey's  fuschine    .       .       . 

136 

Insect  net     .... 

23 

119 

T                f 

Fruit  jars      .       .       .       . 

41,  57 

insGCt  pins    •       •        •        • 
Insect  poison 

142 

Fuschine      .... 

136 

Instruments  for  laboratory 

107 

INDEX. 


227 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Iodized  serum 

138 

Mounting  shells  . 

M 

Mounting  skeletons    . 

17 

Jars  for  storage 

57 

Mounting  specimens  . 

45 

Jellyfish 

41 

Mounting  spiders 

90 

Mucilage       .        .        -        .48, 

!« 

Killing  insects     . 

20 

MUllers  fluid        .        ,        .124, 

13S 

Killing  spiders     . 

30 

Museum  plans     . 

64 

Killing  marine  forms 

41 

Myriapoda    .... 

33 

Kleinenberg's  haematoxylin 

136 

Nacbet  objectives 

89 

Labels           .... 

45 

Natural  skaletons 

17 

Label  holders       .        ... 

48 

Nests  and  eggs     . 

11 

Labels,  large 

59 

Neutral  salt  solution 

i:>s 

Labelling  birds    . 

9 

Nitric  acid 

125 

Labelling  bottles 

49 

Nitrate  of  silver 

i:J7 

Labelling  fossils  and  mi- 

Note books 

10'.) 

nerals         .... 

50 

Novelty  microscope 

92 

Labelling  insects 

49 

Laboratories  «      .        .        .67, 

105 

Objectives            . 

84 

Laboratory  necessaries     . 

107 

Oculars         .... 

84 

Laboratory  tables 

105 

Old  a'cohol 

143 

Laboratory  work 

115 

Oniscidae 

34 

Lamellibranchs 

118 

Osmic  acid    .        .        .         124, 

1:57 

Land  shells 

42 

Ox  gall  for  mending  insects 

96 

Large  labels 

59 

Larvae,  breeding 

81 

Packing  butterflies     . 

95 

Larvae,  inflating 

27 

Packing  insects 

96 

Laurent's  arsenical  soap  . 

141 

Packing  jars 

57 

Leconte's  insect  poison     . 

142 

Painting  tablets 

5:5 

Lenses           .... 

81 

Paper  trays 

12<5 

Lens  holder 

83 

Paraffin  e       .... 

125 

Lilting  sections 

129 

Peron's  luting 

143 

Lobsters    •  . 

118 

Perosmic  acid      . 

137 

...      - 

69 

Photo-illustrations      .        . 

111 

Logwood  (see  Haematoxylin) 

135 

Picrocarmine 

135 

Pigment        .... 

1-2.1 

Macerating  skeletons 

16 

Pill  bugs       .... 

34 

Macerating  skulls 

17 

Pinning  forceps 

24 

Mammals      .... 

4 

Pinning  insects 

23 

Marine  collecting       .        . 

34 

Plan  for  museum        .       . 

64 

Medusae         .... 

41 

Poison  bottle       .        .       * 

20 

Mending  insects 

26 

Poisoning  insects 

'JO 

Microscope  .... 

81 

Polariscope 

91 

Microscopic  slide  cases 

75 

Polyzoa         .... 

42 

Microtomes          .       .        .127, 

130 

Potassic  bichromate 

1:58 

Moistenring  insects     . 

25 

Protozoa       .       .       .       .  . 

117 

Moleschott's  acetic  acid    . 

137 

Printed  labels      . 

48 

Mounting  fishes  .       .       . 

14             Pumping      .... 

58 

228 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

PAGE 

Quinine  bottles 

58 

Stands  for  birds 

10 

Starfish          .... 

117 

Reagents 

107 

Sterling  microtome    . 

130 

Recipes 

135 

Storage  jars 

57 

Relaxing  insects 

25 

Storing  specimens 

57 

Reptiles 

12 

Stretching  paper 

72 

Revolving  stages 

101 

Substitutes  for  cork 

72 

Rooms 

63 

Sugar  for  moths 

141 

Sunken  net 

3!) 

Safety  cord 

37 

Surface  collecting 

3!) 

Schieck  objectives 

89 

Swainson's  soap 

140 

Scoop  nets 

19 

Sea  anemones 

117 

Tables           .... 

106 

Sea  urchins 

117 

Table  cases 

71 

Section  cutters    . 

127,  130 

Tablets          .... 

53 

Section  cutting 

122 

Tangle           .... 

38 

Section  knife 

128 

Teasing  tissues 

123 

Section  lifter 

129 

Tightening  cases 

70 

Seiler's  microtome 

132 

Tolles'  instruments    . 

M| 

Serum 

138 

Transparent  soap 

127 

Setting  insects     . 

24 

Transporting  insects 

fit 

Shelf  brackets 

70 

Trawl    ..... 

37 

Shot       .... 

2 

Triplets         .... 

82 

Silver  nitrate 

137 

Turtles           .... 

r, 

Simon's  arsenical  soap 

141 

Typical  collections     . 

58 

Skeletons 

16 

Skimming     . 

39 

Use  of  microscope 

9!i 

Skimming  net 

40 

Useful  hints 

135. 

Skinning  birds     . 

9 

Skinning  mammals     . 

4 
.            17 

Vertebrates 

2,119 

Sledge  microtome       • 

131 

|  1  o 

Vertical  camera 
Vials      .       .       . 

100 
55 

Soap  for  imbedding 

127 

* 

Softening  tissues 

125 

Washing  the  collections    . 

37 

Solid  eye-pieces 

87 

Wing  trawl 

38 

Sow  bugs      .       .       . 

34 

Wooden  tablets 

53 

Specific  names     . 

46 

Work  tables 

105 

Spiders 

33 

Works  on  collecting 

1 

Spiders,  mounting 

30 

Spreading  insects 

24 

Zeiss  microscopes 

94 

Spreading  board 

2t 

Zeiss  objectives 

89 

Sponges        . 

*         117 

Zentmayer  microscopes    . 

95 

NATURALISTS'  INSTRUMENTS. 


We  keep  constantly  on  hand  an  assortment  of  Instruments  used  by  Natural- 
ists, such  as 

SCALPELS,  BIRD-STUFFING  FORCEPS,  SCISSORS  (curved  and  straight, 

EGG  BLOWERS,   EGG  DRILLS,   INSECT  PINS, 

INSECT  PIN  FORCEPS,  &c. 


SCALPELS,  Ebony  Handle  .        .        . $  .75 

BIRD-STUFFING  FORCEPS, 75, 1.25,  1.75,  2.00,  2.25,  2.75 

According  to  length. 

SCISSORS,  Straight 75,  1.00 

SCISSORS,  Curved .        .          1.25,  1.37,  1.50 

EGG  DRILLS .25  to  1.50 

SYRINGES   .          4.00  to  25.00 

EGG  BLOWERS,  Nickeled 50 

NATURALISTS'    CASES. 

PROF.  MARKS'  CASE  INSTRUMENTS $6.00 

PROF.  WILDER'S  CASE  INSTRUMENTS   .  .        10.00 


CODMAN  &   SHURTLEFF, 

Surgical  and  Dental  Instruments, 

13  AND  15  TREMONT  STREET, 

BOSTON,   MASS. 


HARTNACK   MICROSCOPES. 


THE  HARTNACK  MICROSCOPES  AND  OBJECTIVES 

Acknowledged  by  the  most  eminent  experts  as  the  best  in- 
struments in  the  world  for 

fflSTOLOGICAL,  BOTANICAL,  AND    OTHER 
SCIENTIFIC  RESEARCH. 

Recommended  by  the  Professors  of  Harvard  Univer- 
sity, and  used  in  every  Department. 

Arrangements  have 
been  made  by  which 
these  Microscopes,  with 
their  Objectives,  can 
now  be  placed  upon  the 
American  market  in  com- 
petition with  other  manu- 
factures. As 

SOLE  AGENTS 

we  guarantee  them  to  be 
as  represented. 

MARICHN. 


=  Prices  from  $20  to  $300. 


Stand  No.  VII. 

Selling  Agents  for  Chance's  Slides  and  Cover  Glasses, 
and  Markoe's  Mounting  Materials. 

IMPORTERS   AXT>  MANUFACTURERS  OF 

MICROSCOPISTS'  SUPPLIES,     EDUCATIONAL  SUPPLIES, 
CHEMICAL  AND  PHILOSOPHICAL  APPARATUS. 


Correspondence  solicited.     Catalogues  on  application. 


GEO.   A.   SMITH   AND   COMPANY, 

No.  7  Park  Street,  Boston. 


C  J.  MAYNARD  &  CO., 

No.  306  Washington  Street, 
BOSTON,  MASS. 


DEALERS  IN 


NATURALISTS'  SUPPLIES 

Birds'  Eggs,  Nests,  Skins,  &c.,  &c. 


We  make  a  Spee:alty  of  NATURALISTS'  and 
TAXIDERMISTS'  SUPPLIES,  such  as  Instru- 
ments for  Egg- Blowing,  Stringing,  Mounting, 
etc.  Also, 

ARTIFICIAL    EYES,    LEAVES, 
GRASSES,    MOSSES, 

and  in  fact  all  Supplies  needed  by  the  Collector 
and  Taxidermist. 


Send  for  Catalogue,  addressing  as  above. 


JOSEPH  ZENTMAYER, 
OPTICIAN, 


MANUFACTURER   OF 


MICROSCOPES 


Microscopic  Apparatus, 

147  S.  FOURTH  ST., 

PHILADELPHIA, 
PENN. 


00 

CO 

ee 


a 

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o 


I 


03 


MICROSCOPES  FROM  $38  TO  $1,OOO. 

CATALOGUES  ON  APPLICATION. 


IMPORTANT  BOOKS  FOR  THE  NATURALIST. 


Handbook  of  Invertebrate  Zoology. 

FOR  LABORATORIES  and  SEASIDE  WORK.  By  Prof.  W.  K.  BROOKS,  Ph. 
I).,  Director  Chesapeake  Zoological  Laboratory  of  the  Johns  Hopkins 
University.  Price,  $3.00 

This  work  is  published  in  one  large  8vo  volume  of  400  pages.  Illustrated 

with  200  entirely  new  cuts,  from  drawings  by  the  author,  or  made  under  his 

direct  supervision. 

Handbook  of  Entomology. 

By  Prof.  CHARLES  V.  RILEY,  U.  S.  Entomologist,  Chief  of  Entomological 
Commission,  State  Entomologist  of  Mo.,  etc.,  etc.  In  press.  Cloth.  8vo. 

Price,  9 3.00 

International  Scientists9   Directory. 

Containing  the  Names,  Special  Departments  of  Science,  etc.,  etc.,  of 
Amateur  and  Professional  Naturalists,  Chemists,  Physicists,  Astrono- 
mers, etc.,  etc.,  in  America,  Europe,  Asia,  Africa,  and  Oceanica.  Ready 
Jan.,  1883.  12mo.  Price,  paper,  $2.00;  cloth,  $2.50 

Sea   Mosses. 

By  Rev.  A.  B.  HERVEY.  New  edition.   20  Colored  Plates.  12mo.  Price,  $2.00 

Check   List  of  Coleoptera. 

Check  List  of  Coleoptera  of  America,  North  of  Mexico.  By  G.  R.  CROTCH, 
M.  A.  8vo.  New  edition,  with  supplement.  Price,  $1.25. 

Minot's   Birds   of  New    England. 

Land  Birds  and  Game  Birds  of  New  England,  with  descriptions  of  Birds, 
their  Nests  and  Eggs,  their  Habits  and  Mates.  By  H.  D.  MINOT,  Illus- 
trated by  outline  cuts.  456  pages.  8vo.  Cloth.  Price,  $3.00 

Fern*  of  North  America. 

Text  by  Prof.  DANIEL  C.  EATOX,  of  Yale  College.  Illustrations  by  Messrs. 
J.  H.  Emerton  and  Charles  E.  Faxon.  Complete  in  two  volumes.  Large 
4to.  Cloth,  gilt  top.  Price  $30.00 

Life  on  the  Sea-Shore; 

OR,  ANIMALS  OF  OUR  COASTS  AND  BAYS.  With  illustrations  and  descrip- 
tions by  James  H.  Emertou.  12mo.  Cloth.  Price,  $1.50 

Primative  Industry  ; 

OR,  ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  THE   HANDIWORK  IN  STONE,  BONE  AND  CLAY,  OF 

THE  NATIVK  RACES  OF  THE  NORTHERN  ATLANTIC  SEA-BOARD.    By 
CHARLES  C.  ABBOTT,  M.  D.    560  pages.    8vo.    429  cuts.  Price,  $3.00 

How  to  Mount  Birds   and  Animals; 

OR,  THE  TAXIDERMIST'S    GUIDE.     By  C.  J.  MAYNARD.    12mo.    Cloth. 

Illustrated.  Price,  $1.50 

This  is  an  entirely  new  work,  just  issued,  and  should  be  in  the  hands  of 

all  who  are  interested  in  our  birds  and  animals.    With  its  aid  the  tyro  can 

soon  prepare  skins  in  as  good  shape  as  the  most  experienced  taxidermist. 


Any  book  mentioned  sent  by  mail  on  receipt  of  price.    Books  imported  from 
all  European  centres  at  lowest  rates. 

S.   E.   CASSINO,   PUBLISHER, 

32  Hawley  St.,  Boston,  Mass. 


HANDBOOK 

INTERTEBRATE  ZOOLOGY, 

FOR  LABORATORIES  AND  SEASIDE  STUDY. 
DBTT     "W.      K-     BROOKS, 

Associate  Professor  of  Zoology  and    Comparative   Anatomy,  and 

Director  of  the  Marine  Laboratory  of  the  Johns  Hopkins 

University:  formerly  Assistant  in  the  Boston  Society 

of  Natural  History. 

The  book  contains  directions  for  studying  the  general  anatomy,  the  micro- 
scopic structure,  and  the  development  of  selected  types  of  animal  life ;  and  it 
also  describes  the  method  of  collecting  and  preserving  the  forms  which  are  de- 
scribed. The  following  are  some  ol  the  subjects  treated : 

The  structure  of  Vorticellae, 

The  reproduction  of  Vorticellae, 
The  structure  of  a  Sponge, 

The  structure  and  growth  of  a  Campanularian  Hydroid, 

The  structure  and  development  of  a  Hydro- Medusa, 
The  general  anatomy  of  a  Starfish, 

The  microscopic  anatomy  of  a  Starfish. 

The  general  anatomy  of  a  Sea  Urchin, 

The  embryology  and  metamorphosis  of  the  Sea  Urchin  and  Starfish, 
The  general  anatomy  of  the  Earthworm, 

The  microscopic  structure  of  the  Earthworm, 
The  anatomy  of  the  Leech, 

The  anatomy  of  a  Crab. 

The  metamorphosis  of  a  Crab, 

The  structure  and  development  of  Cyclops, 
The  anatomy  of  a  Grasshopper, 

The  general  anatomy  of  Unio, 

The  microscopic  anatomy  of  Unio, 

The  embryology  and  metamorphosis  of  Unio, 

The  anatomy  and  embryology  of  the  Squid. 

Illustrated  by  nearly  two  hundred  cuts  from  the  author's  draw- 
Ings,  or  from  drawings  made  from  nature  under  his  direction. 

S.  E.  CASSINO,  Publisher, 

BOSTON,  MASS. 


NEW   WORK 

-  ON  - 

SEA    MOSSES. 


\\  TE  shall  issue  in  a  few  days  an  elegantly  illustrated  "MANUAL  OF  AMERICAN  SEA 
MOSSES,"  prepared  by  Rev.  A.  B.  Hervey.  It  is  just  such  a  work  as  has  lon^ 
been  needed  and  much  called  for:  a  handy,  convenient  book  for  sea-side  use. 
Nothing  of  the  kind  has  been  published  in  this  country;  Harvey's  great  work,  com- 
pleted 25  years  ago,  in  three  ponderous  quartos,  being  too  expensive  and  too  cum- 
bersome for  general  and  popular  use. 

It  is  a  complete  Collector's  Guide,  giving  practical  information  as  to  the  best  times, 
places  and  methods  of  collecting  the  necessary  apparatus,  and  the  details  of  float- 
ing out,  pressing,  drying,  preserving,  and  mounting  these  beautiful  plants  Full 
directions  are  also  given  of  the  best  methods  of  studying  and  identifying  these  plants. 
Full  "keys"  art.  given,  at  the  head  of  each  group,  by  which  the  most  inexperienced 
may  be  easily  guided  to  the  genus  to  which  the  plant  he  is  studying  belongs. 

While  in  the  description  of  species  the  method  of  treatment  is  popular,  and 
especially  adapted  to  the  need  of  amateur  botanists  and  sea-side  collectors,  all  the  state- 
ments are  made  with  scientific  accuracy  and  carefulness.  Ail  the  common  species 
belonging  to  the  three  great  groups  of  Green,  Olive  Colored  and  Red  Algz,  are  taken 
up  in  order,  and  so  described  in  detail,  that  it  is  believed  they  may  be  easily  identified 
whenever  found.  The  book  is  thus  made  a  complete  guide  to  all  the  common  and 
beautiful  forms  of  our  Atlantic  flora,  north  of  the  Carolinas,  including  nearly  all  the 
characteristic  forms  of  the  Pacific  coast,  for  California,  Oregon  and  the  North. 

The  plates,  twenty  in  number,  are  drawn  and  colored  from  nature,  and  represent 
twenty-four  of  the  most  interesting,  beautiful  and  characteristic  species,  in  not  less 
than  nineteen  genera. 

The  work  is  issued  in  elegant  binding,  12  mo.,  over  300  pages,  and  is  printed  on  fine, 
heavy  paper,  with  20  full-paged  colored  plates.  Price,  postpaid,  $2.00. 

%gF*For  sale  by  all  booksellers,  or  sent,  postpaid,  on  receipt 
of  Price,  by  the  publisher. 


S.  E.  CASSINO,  PUBLISHER, 

32  HAWLEy   STREET,  BOSTON,  MASS. 


NATURAL  HISTORY  STORE. 

ESTABLISHED  IN  1859. 

No.  168  TREMONT  STREET, 
BOSTON. 


W.   J.    KNOWLTON, 

(SUCCESSOR  TO  BBEWSTER  &  KNOWLTON) 


DEALER   IN 


Birds,  Minerals,  Fossils,  Shells, 

AND 

OBJECTS  OF   NATURAL  HISTORY   FROM 
ALL  PARTS   OF  THE   WORLD. 


NATURALISTS',  TAXIDERMISTS', 

AND  MINERALOGISTS'  SUPPLIES, 

BIRDS'  EYES  AT  LOWEST  PRICES. 
Send  for  Catalogue, 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN     INITIAL     FINE     OF    25     CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  SO  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  ON  THE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE. 


OEC 


gy 

7   1932 


MAR  3  1933 


MAY  6    1939 
APR     9  1940 

MAR  27  1941 


APR161957 

APR  2    1957 

MAY  2  5  1963 


LD  21-50m-8,-32 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


